Unconventional Energy Sources Research Articles

RETRACTED: Hasnol et al. A Review on Insights for Green Production of Unconventional Protein and Energy Sources Derived from the Larval Biomass of Black Soldier Fly. Processes 2020, 8, 523

The Processes Editorial Office retracts the article titled “A Review on Insights for Green Production of Unconventional Protein and Energy Sources Derived from the Larval Biomass of Black Soldier Fly” [...]

Will we use Micro Black Holes to Power Spacetime Warping for Creating Micro Wormholes?

In the realm of theoretical physics, the concept of harnessing micro black holes for spacetime warping and the creation of micro wormholes presents a highly ambitious and intriguing idea. The proposition, originating from Zhan-Feng Mai and Run-Qiu Yang of Tianjin University in China, revolves around the utilization of ultra-dense primordial black holes as unconventional energy sources. These black holes, possibly as small as subatomic particles, could provide energy not from their intrinsic properties but through the gravitational forces at their event horizons.

Screening the optimal Cox/CeO2(110) (x = 1–6) catalyst for methane activation in coalbed gas

The challenges posed by energy and environmental issues have forced mankind to explore and utilize unconventional energy sources. It is imperative to convert the abundant coalbed gas (CBG) into high value-added products, i.e., selective and efficient conversion of methane from CBG. Methane activation, known as the “holy grail”, poses a challenge to the design and development of catalysts. The structural complexity of the active metal on the carrier is of particular concern. In this work, we have studied the nucleation growth of small Co clusters (up to Co6) on the surface of CeO2(110) using density functional theory, from which a stable loaded Co/CeO2(110) structure was selected to investigate the methane activation mechanism. Despite the relatively small size of the selected Co clusters, the obtained Cox/CeO2(110) exhibits interesting properties. The optimized Co5/CeO2(110) structure was selected as the optimal structure to study the activation mechanism of methane due to its competitive electronic structure, adsorption energy and binding energy. The energy barriers for the stepwise dissociation of methane to form CH3*, CH2*, CH*, and C* radical fragments are 0.44, 0.55, 0.31, and 1.20 eV, respectively, indicating that CH* dissociative dehydrogenation is the rate-determining step for the system under investigation here. This fundamental study of metal-support interactions based on Co growth on the CeO2(110) surface contributes to the understanding of the essence of Co/CeO2 catalysts with promising catalytic behavior. It provides theoretical guidance for better designing the optimal Co/CeO2 catalyst for tailored catalytic reactions.

A nonwoven supported mixed matrix membrane for CH4/N2 separation

Efficiently enriching low-concentration CH4 is pivotal for enhancing the utilization of unconventional energy sources and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. This study focuses on modifying the overall performance of CH4/N2 separation membranes. A novel mixed matrix membrane (MMM) with a reinforced substrate structure was developed through a straightforward dip-coating technique. This MMM incorporates a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) porous membrane as the supporting framework, while a composite of block polymer (styrene-butadiene-styrene) and metal–organic framework (Ni-MOF-74) forms the selective separation layer. Comprehensive characterization of Ni-MOF-74 and the fabricated membranes was conducted using X-rays diffraction, scanning electron microscope, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller analysis, and gas permeance tests. The findings indicate a robust integration of the PTFE porous support with the membrane layer, enhancing the mechanical stability of the MMM. Under optimal conditions, the mechanical strength of the PM20 membrane (containing 20% Ni-MOF-74) was observed to be 37.7 MPa, representing remarkable increase compared to the non-reinforced MMM. Additionally, the PM20 membrane exhibited an impressive CH4 permeation rate of 92 Barrer (1 Barrer = 3.35×10–16 mol·m·m–2·s–1·Pa–1) alongside a CH4/N2 selectivity of 4.18. These results underscore the MMM's substantial performance and its promising potential in methane enrichment applications.

In Situ Gas Content Prediction Method for Shale.

Shale gas is a typical unconventional energy source and recently has received great attention around the world. Unlike conventional natural gas, shale gas mainly exists in two forms: free state and adsorbed state. Therefore, geologists have proposed the concept of gas content. The traditional calculation methods of gas content can be summarized as on-site gas desorption, logging interpretation, isothermal adsorption, and so on. However, all of the methods mentioned above have their shortcomings. In situ gas content is a new concept in the calculation of the gas content. In this paper, the in situ gas content is defined as the gas content obtained by direct measurement of core gas production through experimental or mathematical simulation of original reservoir conditions. In this work, a method to calculate the in situ gas content of shale is provided, which includes two parts: numerical simulation of the coring process and a gas content experiment. Compared with previous gas content prediction methods, this article considers the influence of the temperature field on gas content both in mathematical modeling and experiments. Then, the gas content of the Longmaxi Formation shale in the Sichuan Basin was calculated using both methods as an example. The results show that (1) the numerical model was considered to be reliable by analyzing the effects of coring speed and permeability on the loss of gas; (2) the total gas content predicted by numerical simulation of the coring process and the gas content experiment are approximately equal, with values of 5.08 m3/t and 4.95 m3/t, respectively; (3) the total gas content of the USBM method is only 4.28 m3/t, which is significantly lower than the above methods. In summary, this study provides an in situ gas content prediction method for shale from both mathematical modeling and experiments. The mutual verification of theory and experiment makes this method highly reliable.

On Search for Unconventional Energy Sources for Harvesting

Energy transformation requires replacing power plants based on fossil raw materials with renewable energy. Energy harvesting plays an important, although not fully appreciated, role here. Distributed, local power supply systems for small receivers, based on various sources which previously dissipated energy, may contribute to changing the current energy paradigm. This article presents an overview of energy harvesting technologies and various energy sources used in this process. Particular attention was paid to sources of a less conventional nature. The aim of this article is to encourage and direct scientists with the potential to explore this topic to look for new, previously unexploited energy sources and innovative and effective methods of obtaining useful energy in the harvesting process.

Effect of Machine Learning Algorithms on Prediction of In-Cylinder Combustion Pressure of Ammonia–Oxygen in a Constant-Volume Combustion Chamber

Road vehicles, particularly cars, are one of the primary sources of CO2 emissions in the transport sector. Shifting to unconventional energy sources such as solar and wind power may reduce their carbon footprints considerably. Consequently, using ammonia as a fuel due to its potential benefits, such as its high energy density, being a carbon-free fuel, and its versatility during storage and transportation, has now grabbed the attention of researchers. However, its slow combustion speed, larger combustion chamber requirements, ignition difficulties, and limited combustion stability are still major challenges. Therefore, authors tried to analyze the combustion pressure of ammonia in a constant-volume combustion chamber across different equivalence ratios by adopting a machine learning approach. While conducting the analysis, the experimental values were assessed and subsequently utilized to predict the induced combustion pressure in a constant-volume combustion chamber across various equivalence ratios. In this research, a two-step prediction process was employed. In the initial step, the Random Forest algorithm was applied to assess the combustion pressure. Subsequently, in the second step, artificial neural network machine learning algorithms were employed to pinpoint the most effective algorithm with a lower root-mean-square error and R2. Finally, Linear Regression illustrated the lowest error in both steps with a value of 1.0, followed by Random Forest.

Navigating global energy markets: A review of economic and policy impacts

The global energy landscape is undergoing a profound transformation, marked by shifts in supply and demand dynamics, technological advancements, and evolving policy frameworks. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the economic and policy impacts shaping contemporary global energy markets. Economic forces play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of global energy markets. The exploration of unconventional energy sources, such as shale gas and renewable technologies, has disrupted traditional supply chains, influencing market prices and altering the geopolitical dynamics of energy-producing nations. The rise of energy-efficient technologies and the growing demand for cleaner energy sources are redefining the investment landscape, creating new opportunities and challenges for businesses, governments, and consumers alike. Policy decisions at national and international levels exert a profound influence on energy markets. The transition towards a low-carbon economy is a central theme, with governments worldwide implementing a variety of regulatory frameworks, incentives, and penalties to encourage sustainable energy practices. This paper explores the effectiveness and implications of these policies, examining their impact on market competitiveness, innovation, and global cooperation in addressing climate change. The interplay between economic and policy factors is evident in the ongoing energy transition. As countries strive to meet their climate goals, the paper delves into the intricacies of energy market dynamics, analyzing the role of government interventions in fostering innovation, promoting energy security, and addressing socio-economic disparities. Furthermore, the paper highlights the interconnectedness of global energy markets, emphasizing the importance of international collaboration in achieving a sustainable and resilient energy future. By providing a nuanced understanding of the economic and policy influences on global energy markets, this review aims to guide stakeholders in navigating the complexities of an evolving energy landscape.

Enhancement of biodiesel production using magnetic nanocatalyst CrFe2O4 from mixed waste cooking oil by an empirical model

Biodiesel has achieved widespread recognition as an unconventional energy source, despite its extra manufacturing cost and sustainable resources. Mixed waste cooking oil is one of the best feedstock for sustainable biodiesel production. This study looked at the prospect of using the easily separable magnetic nanocatalyst CrFe2O4 to reduce the manufacturing cost and being used in both esterification and transesterification simultaneously with less percentage of 0.5, produced the highest oil conversion. Before being used in conversion process, the magnetic nanocatalyst underwent Fourier transform infrared, XRD, scanning electron microscope, TGA, AFM, and BET analysis to evaluate its characteristics. Response surface methodology was employed in the conversion process and achieved 97% yield with the utilization of 0.4 (v/v) methanol/oil ratio, 0.5 wt. % catalyst concentration, 600 rpm stirring speed, and the duration of 80 min. The effect of methanol consumption and time was considerably more significant than the effect of stirring speed and catalyst usage, according to the analysis of variance. The generated biodiesel met all physicochemical characteristics with high potential, according to ASTM and EN standards. Right combinations of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids confirm the promising feasibility of the application of waste biomass feedstocks as an alternate option for the sustainable, cost effective and energy efficient synthesis of biodiesel production.

Effect of sand production on physical properties and fracturing development of gas hydrate reservoir

Offshore gas hydrates are being focused on as an unconventional energy source. The susceptibility of marine hydrate reservoirs to sand emergence makes them unsuitable for long-term exploitation. This research delves into the particle-transport law in hydrate reservoirs, revealing that sand blockage hinders long-term exploitation, and proposes a reservoir modification strategy to establish high-permeability channels, thereby enhancing production. After 110 days of mining, the range of porosity and permeability below the initial value was approximately 8.5 m. The study further optimizes reservoir modification parameters under sand blockage, suggesting that a balance between fracture and reservoir blockage can be achieved with a fracture half-length of 20 m, leading to increased production. It also highlights that the slow decomposition of blocked hydrate and the accumulation of decomposed methane gas in the upper part of the reservoir can be leveraged to increase production by providing a high permeability channel for free gas, concluding that maintaining long-term high permeability is crucial for hydrate reservoir fractures.

Petroleum geology of conventional and unconventional resources: Introduction

Understanding reservoir, source, seal, migration pathways and trap characterization is the first step towards better energy resource exploitation. Several studies have been conducted in recent decades on the reservoir characteristics of conventional resources. Unconventional resources, on the other hand, have received more attention as alternative future energy solutions to depleted conventional resources. Drilling, exploration, development, and production of conventional and unconventional resources pose technical challenges to the energy industry. This special issue attempts to address the most pressing technical challenges in developing conventional reservoirs (such as sandstone and carbonate reservoirs) as well as unconventional energy sources (e.g., shale gas, shale oil, tight gas sand, coal bed methane, geothermal and gas hydrates). The special issue is composed of 21 papers that are classified into six different groups related to the physical and mechanical properties of reservoirs, petroleum geochemistry, petroleum geology, geological modelling, unconventional resource evaluation and conventional reservoir evaluation.

A Study On Hydrogen Production Methods Using the TOPSIS Method

For humanity and social health, energy is essential. Hydrogen is one of several potential energy carriers for green technologies. The Black Sea seas are a rich source of "hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)", which is also a known environmental contaminant. The main drivers of hydrogen technology are global warming and the depletion of fossil fuels. Additionally, the nation's economies that depend on the importation of conventional fuel have been exposed as a result of the rising prices of these fuels due to the rising energy demand. Future renewable technologies need to be carbon-free and renewable to combat climate change on a long-term basis and reduce our reliance on foreign oil. Hydrogen can be produced using a variety of traditional and unconventional sources of energy, including "natural gas, coal, nuclear power, biomass, solar, and wind". The most ecological hydrogen production method using H2S is chosen in this research using the "technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS)", taking into account sustainable factors which are inescapable in energy managerial problems. The "Equal Weights Method (EWM)" allocates weights to many criteria, most notably relevance weights. The rank of alternatives using the TOPSIS method for Thermal is second, Electrochemical is third, Thermochemical is fourth, Photochemical is fifth and Plasma is first. The analysis's findings indicate that plasma is the best and most suitable method for producing hydrogen in terms of delivering high conversion efficiency and environmentally friendly operations, such as handling, shipping, and storing dangerous chemicals.

Shale Gas: An Undepletable Energy Resource

World Energy market is growing day by day in abundance as much as 50 % growth by 2050 as compared to 2010. But the resources are continuously depleting and lowering the energy content. Thus renewable energy resources are not feasible and capable enough to fulfill the increasing demands. Increase in production of nonrenewable energy source, i.e., the fossil fuels may help to fulfill the energy requirement of future generations. Shale gas is one of the optional unconventional sources of energy. Shale gas deposits are scattered all over the planet in low-permeability and low porosity reservoirs. India has overall reserves of shale gas between 600 and 2000 TCF, of which 63 TCF is of recoverable shale gas. Shale exploration techniques are discussed. Light is provided on shale oil and gas global and national data. Challenges faced practically are described. Key Words: Shale Gas, Sedimentary Rocks, Fracking, Kerogen, Hydraulic Fracturing, Vertical Drilling.

Positioning of horizontal well-bore in the hydrate reservoir using a custom developed coupled THMC solver

Natural gas hydrate sediments are considered as an unconventional source of energy found in deep sea reservoirs and permafrost regions under specific equilibrium conditions. To efficiently extract the gas from these sediments, well-bores need to be installed in these reservoirs followed by adopting an appropriate hydrate dissociation technique. This study presents a custom-developed coupled THMC solver to realistically quantify the gas production and associated sediment deformation. The numerical scheme solves coupled equations describing hydrate phase change kinetics and non-isothermal multiphase flow in porous media. The proposed THMC solver incorporates the HISS-MH constitutive model, enabling it to capture the non-linear geomechanical behavior of gas hydrate sediments, including strain-softening and dilation characteristics. The solver is validated against existing experimental results and a benchmark problem. Finally, the effect of different horizontal well-bore positions on vertical settlement and cumulative gas production is studied. The results indicate that the well-bore in the middle of the reservoir yields the highest cumulative gas production while differential settlement is minimum, thus making it a preferable location for placing the horizontal well-bores. This study contributes towards the development of a custom THMC solver with advanced models in addition to identifying the ideal location of the horizontal well-bore for efficient gas extraction.

Integrated Energy Creation Using Wind Energy and Solar Energy

Electricity is one of the most important things for our daily lives in today's technology-driven environment. We are all unaware of the reality that renewable energy sources are exhausting at a breakneck pace. So it's time to switch our attention from conventional to unconventional energy sources to generate electricity. When compared to traditional sources, non-conventional sources produce less electricity overall. The environment is not harmed by the use of renewable resources. In essence, a solar-wind hybrid system combines a solar energy plant with a wind energy plant. It will contribute to ensuring a steady supply of power. The hybrid system can be applied to both household and commercial settings. Solar-wind hybrid structures are essentially a combination of wind and sun power flowers. The main rotor shaft of horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) is a particular design of wind turbines. One benefit of this configuration is that solar panels and generators can both be installed near the ground, creating a hybrid system. This electricity can be used for a variety of things. At a reasonable price, electricity will be generated. The goal of this project is to generate electricity from two sources simultaneously at a low cost without endangering the delicate balance of nature.

Biogeochemical Controls on Methane Generation: A Review on Indian Coal Resources

Coal bed methane (CBM) extraction has astounding effects on the global energy budget. Since the earliest discoveries of CBM, this natural gas form has witnessed ever-increasing demands from the core sectors of the economy. CBM is an unconventional source of energy occurring naturally within coal beds. The multiphase CBM generation during coal evolution commences with microbial diagenesis of the sedimentary organic matter during peatification, followed by early to mature thermogenic kerogen decomposition and post-coalification occurrences. Indeed, the origin of the CBM and, moreover, its economically valuable retention within coal seams is a function of various parameters. Several noticeable knowledge gaps include the controls of coal make-up and its physico-chemical position on the CBM generation and genetic link through fossil molecular and stable isotopic integration with the parent coal during its evolution. Therefore, this manuscript reviews the origin of CBM; the influences of coal properties and micropetrographic entities on CBM generation and storage; and its genetic molecular and stable isotope compositions in India and the world’s major coal reservoirs. Moreover, analyses of and outlooks on future development trends in the exploration, production, and application of coalbed methane are also addressed. Finally, as India has the fifth largest proven coal reserves, this brief review of the recent CBM discoveries and developments provides a plausible scope for microbially enhanced CBM production from these basins.

BIOFUELS – A NOVEL DIMENSION FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

The demand for energy has increased globally and the availability of fossil fuel is limited. Added to this, there has been a negative effect on climate due to the emission of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels. These are the alarming signals to explore unconventional and sustainable energy sources. Biomass energy is becoming popular these days as it is clean and sustainable form of energy. It can potentially solve the problems of waste management and energy security. Growth in industrialization and agricultural sector has witnessed the accumulation of huge biowastes like forest residues, food waste, agriculture crop residues, wood processing residues industrial waste and municipal solid waste (MSW). Biomass from these biowastes have also simultaneously emerged prospective feedstocks for bioenergy production. Production and consumption of biofuel is becoming popular as it will be a novel approach for a sustainable future.

Coaxial multi-criteria optimization of a methane steam reforming reactor for effective hydrogen production and thermal management

The advancement in environmental awareness is the recent driving factor of the energy industry development. The market sentiments dictate the commercialization of unconventional energy sources. Thus, generation via hydrogen conversion gains popularity. The presented research regards the enhancement of the steam reforming reaction, used for the production of hydrogen via the conversion of hydrocarbons. The reforming process characterizes by a strong endothermic nature. The rapid course of the reaction leads to the creation of temperature gradients of a considerable magnitude. The presented research strives to alleviate the negative consequences of the reaction character. An original strategy by the name of macro-patterning is suggested as a remedy. The presented research proposes an updated concept, predicting the introduction of coaxial segments to the catalytic insert. The segments may consist of catalytic material or metallic foam applied for local suppression of the reaction. The morphology of specific segments may be altered independently, to allow for additional control of the reforming reaction. The objective of the research is to define the optimal segment composition. The optimization process is based on an in-house procedure implementing a genetic algorithm. The acquired results appear to validate the macro-pattering concept. A significant unification of the temperature field is obtained, with a simultaneous increase in hydrogen productivity.

Integrated Power System Using Wind and Solar Energy

Abstract: Electricity is one of the most important things for our daily lives in today's technology-driven environment. We are all unaware of the reality that renewable energy sources are exhausting at a breakneck pace. So it's time to switch our attention from conventional to unconventional energy sources in order to generate electricity. When compared to traditional sources, nonconventional sources produce less electricity overall. The environment is not harmed by the use of renewable resources. In essence, a solar-wind hybrid system combines a solar energy plant with a wind energy plant. It will contribute to ensuring a steady supply of power. The hybrid system can be applied to both household and commercial settings. Solar-wind hybrid structures are essentially a combination of wind and sun power flowers. The main rotor shaft of horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) is a particular design of wind turbine. One benefit of this configuration is that solar panels and generators can both be installed near to the ground, creating a hybrid system. This electricity can be used for a variety of things. At a reasonable price, electricity will be generated. The goal of this project is to generate electricity from two sources simultaneously at a low cost without endangering the delicate balance of nature.

Comprehensive Analysis of Power Systems for Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Now the pollution problem is becoming more and more serious, and the gas emitted by cars has seriously affected the environment. In order to reduce environmental pollution and Strength conservation and emission discount, sell the first-rate sustainable development of China's new electricity automobile industry, accelerate the development of vehicle strength, and the study of new energy vehicles is inevitable. New power vehicles are designed to use unconventional energy sources or indirectly use gasoline energy in a way that differs from conventional automotive internal combustion engines. The new power vehicle is the superior technology to complete the power control and driving of the vehicle which transcends the traditional technology and way. It is a vehicle with new technology as well as new structure. This paper mainly analyzes the energy conversion of hybrid electric vehicles, the advantages and disadvantages of the power system of hybrid electric vehicles, and also discusses the actual application of technology and the plate and management mode of power battery.