Ultimate Attainment Research Articles

The Roles of Positive and Negative Evidence in the Development of the English Present Progressive Structure

The type of linguistic evidence necessary for ultimate L2 attainment has been a major topic of debate. This research investigates the role of negative vs. positive evidence in the acquisition of the affirmative and negative present progressive structures. Following a quasi-experimental design, 49 Saudi EFL learners were divided into three groups: Control Group (n=13), Negative Evidence group (n=15), and Positive Evidence group (n=21). It was hypothesized that negative evidence would be more effective for the acquisition of the present progressive structure than positive evidence, to the point that a significant difference would result between the performance of the two experimental groups. The participants took a pre-test, after which they were given classroom intervention sessions on the use of the English present progressive structure. They then took a post-test. The results show significant differences in the performance of the experimental groups compared to the control group. However, there was no statistical difference between the two experimental groups. Thus, the research supports the importance of the role of negative evidence in teaching L2 when paired with positive evidence. We outline pedagogical implications for further research to determine the extent to which the two types of evidence can be blended in English language classrooms.

Heritage language acquisition: What it reveals and why it is important for formal linguistic theories

AbstractThis paper discusses the interplay between acquisition and theory construction. It endeavors to show how a more direct and crucially bi‐directional relationship between formal linguistic theory and the study of heritage language bilingualism can provide mutual benefit. It will be argued that data from acquisition—not exclusively but indeed especially from heritage language bilingualism—provide windows into the tenability of formal linguistic proposals. As a result, acquisition evidence—both developmental and in ultimate attainment—should be welcomed by all formal theorists, as they can confirm or disconfirm otherwise seemingly unverifiable theoretical arguments. Our claims will be illustrated by three research areas: language change, differences between functional and lexical features, and the interplay between core syntax and other components of the grammar.

Forever Homes and Temporary Stops: Housing Search Logics and Residential Selection

Abstract Residential selection is central in determining children’s housing, neighborhood, and school contexts, and an extensive literature considers the social processes that shape residential searches and attainment. While this literature typically frames the residential search as a uniform process oriented around finding residential options with desired characteristics, we examine whether individuals may differentially conceive of these searches in ways that sustain inequality in residential attainment. Drawing on repeated, in-depth interviews with a stratified random sample of 156 households with young children in two metropolitan counties, we find that parents exhibit distinct residential search logics, informed by the constraints they face. Higher-income families usually engage in purposive searches oriented around their residential preferences. They search for “forever homes” that will meet their families’ needs for years to come. In contrast, low-income parents typically draw on a logic of deferral. While they hope to eventually search for a home with the unit, neighborhood, and school characteristics they desire, aspirations for homeownership lead them to conceive of their moves (which are often between rental units) as “temporary stops,” which justifies accepting homes that are inconsistent with their long-term preferences. In addition, because they are often “pushed” to move by negative circumstances, they focus on their immediate housing needs and, in the most extreme cases, adopt an “anywhere but here” approach. These logics constitute an unexamined mechanism through which economic resources shape residential searches and ultimate attainment.

The acquisition of differential object marking in Spanish by Romanian speakers

Abstract The obligatory use of the preposition ‘a’ with animate, specific direct objects in Spanish (Juan conoce a María “Juan knows Maria”) is a well-known instance of Differential Object Marking (dom). This study investigates the acquisition of dom by native speakers of Romanian learning Spanish. Spanish and Romanian have dom lexicalized in the prepositions ‘a’ (Spanish) and in ‘pe’ (Romanian). In the two languages dom is regulated by animacy and specificity. Thirty-two native speakers of Spanish and 36 Romanian-speaking learners of Spanish with advanced proficiency completed a written production, a written comprehension, and an acceptability judgment task. The results show that, in general, and unlike what has been found for English-speaking learners of Spanish, advanced Romanian learners of Spanish are successful at acquiring the feature specification and distribution of dom in Spanish. The findings are discussed with respect to the nature of ultimate attainment as a function of language transfer.

TERMINOLOGY MATTERS ON THEORETICAL GROUNDS TOO!

AbstractHerein, we provide counterargumentation to some of Domínguez, Hicks, and Slabakova's claims that the termincomplete acquisitionis conceptually necessary on theoretical grounds for describing the outcome grammars of heritage language bilingualism. Specifically, we clarify their claim that previous challenging of the term in our and others’ work is primarily based on a misconceived belief that incompleteness is intended to describe heritage speakers. We contextualize and problematize their appropriation of descriptive constructs in the adjacent fields of child L1, child 2L1, and adult L2 acquisition as a basis for supporting their general thesis. Relatedly, we conclude that a fundamental blurring of development and ultimate attainment issues is at the core of what, in our view, is flawed reasoning. While we empathize with the well-intentioned spirit of Domínguez et al.’s article—to provide a forum for respectful discussion—we invite the field to engage more directly with the inherent quandary of labeling the coherent grammars of heritage bilinguals in their own right as “incomplete” on the basis of differences to standard varieties.

The Younger, the Better? A Multi-Factorial Approach to Understanding Age Effects on EFL Phonological Attainment

Second language (L2) phonological acquisition is constrained by a complex interplay of extra-linguistic factors, among which the age factor is frequently investigated. This study adopted a multi-factorial approach to examine the effects of the age of learning English (AoLE), along with ten other extra-linguistic factors, on the ultimate English phonological attainment of 318 university students in Chinese context for English as a foreign language (EFL) as a whole and across three cohorts: first-year non-English majors, first-year English majors, and third-year English majors. The participants were administered background questionnaires and receptive and productive EFL phonology tests. The results of regression analyses indicated that the AoLE was not a predictor for the whole sample, while English pronunciation self-concept (EPSC) turned out to be the most predictive. Predictors for each cohort varied in number and content. Whichever cohort the participants came from, EPSC remained a constant and potent predictor, whereas the AoLE could merely predict the phonological attainment of first-year non-English majors, accounting for 4% of its variance. The findings of the study contribute to the long-standing debate over the viability of the critical period hypothesis, provide methodological implications for age-related L2 phonology research, and inform early EFL educational decisions.

Genericity in third language English: Acquisition pattern and transfer in ultimate attainment

This study investigates the acquisition of genericity in advanced third language (L3) English. The learners are first language (L1) Moroccan Arabic–second language (L2) French adults. They completed an acceptability judgment task testing the interpretation of five count nominal types in noun phrase (NP)-level and sentence-level genericity: definite, indefinite and bare singulars, definite and bare plurals. The study defines the generic or non-generic status of every NP form in the learners’ L3 interlanguage. The results show that the L3 learners are target-like on the generic interpretation of bare plurals, although these are strictly existential in their native language and illicit in L2 French. Definite and bare singulars do not pose any difficulty either. In contrast, non-facilitative L1 transfer induces the generic interpretation of definite plurals and restricts indefinite singulars to the existential interpretation. The results show that the L3 learners do not distinguish NP-level from sentence-level genericity, reflecting L1 Arabic grammar where the two merge. They use the same pattern of NP types for the two types. Thus, knowledge of genericity in L3 English is a patchwork of target-like and non-target-like exponents.

Integration of citizenship education with religious education in Lesotho secondary schools

The current article fervently acknowledges the general agreement that Lesotho had never experienced a stable democracy ever since the ultimate attainment of political independence in 1966. Among other possible solutions proposed to the problem of Lesotho’s democratic instability, citizenship education dominates government documents and various works regarding the political discourse. Although there is this pervasive recognition of the needed political educational intervention, there is no explicit direction on how to properly introduce the envisaged citizenship education. The article valiantly attempts bridging this visible gap by carefully probing the published literature to propose the meaningful integration of citizenship education with religious education. The discussion was guided by the critical use of the post-secular theoretical framework. The article highlights that, coupled with post-Christianity, post-secular theory undoubtedly provided a workable framework for the meaningful integration of secular (political citizenship) and religious essences for the promotion of democratic stability in Lesotho. The article logically concludes by showing that the proposed integration of citizenship education in religious education is within acceptable philosophical modes of proper education.

Crucified Wisdom: Theological Reflection on Christ and the Bodhisattva by S. Mark Heim

Reviewed by: Crucified Wisdom: Theological Reflection on Christ and the Bodhisattva by S. Mark Heim Christian McIvor CRUCIFIED WISDOM: THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION ON CHRIST AND THE BODHISATTVA. By S. Mark Heim. New York: Fordham University Press, 2019. 329 pp. In Crucified Wisdom, S. Mark Heim takes on a systematic analysis of the bodhisattva path in order to explore its value in offering new and useful insights for constructive Christian theology. He proposes that reflection upon the concepts of "reconciliation and self-giving in Christian theology … by reference to Buddhist teachings" can help a Christian theologian "better understand and interpret her own tradition" (p. 1). In directing his attention toward a comparative interest "in bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva path on the one hand, and Christ and the Christ-disciple path on the other," he seeks to offer a more holistic understanding of the Christian faith (pp. 2 and 4). Heim frames his work around similar functional ideals in each tradition, particularly the "sites where tensions or internal stresses are at play," as these are the structural places of interest that lead to "forms of transformation and realization" (p. 27). He argues that both the bodhisattva and Christ-disciple paths point toward ultimate attainment involving a unitive state while operating in dual realms, but they conceive of this state of attainment differently and approach it from divergent perspectives. Whereas the bodhisattva path leads toward personal and collective enlightenment through the realization of nirvanā and the wisdom of emptiness with continued operation in the material world (samsāra), the Christ-disciple path leads toward salvation in human/divine reconciliation through "mimetic indwelling" between diverse individuals, which is rooted in "the coinherence of emptiness and immanence identities with personal and communal relations" (p. 270). Heim effectively presents his case of these differing approaches, but as he himself concludes, "We end with no grand resolution to the tensions that make this study so fruitful" (p. 261). Although these traditions ultimately operate in different contexts with different goals for attainment, Heim cogently shows how many of the similarities between the bodhisattva and Christ-disciple paths can bring Christians to a fuller understanding of their own faith. Heim divides the book into three main sections. Part I gives an overview of the particularities to be examined within the bodhisattva and Christ-disciple paths, part II provides an introduction to the bodhisattva path through the study of Śāntideva's [End Page 349] Bodhicaryāvatāra ("A Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life"), and part III offers theological reflections from Heim's own Christian perspective. He begins part I by exploring how each tradition "distinctively constitute[s its] own tension" (p. 27). Heim notices an internal stress within Buddhism concerning an individual's attachment to happiness/relief from suffering that is in conflict with the potential liberation of that suffering through nonattachment. Christianity holds a similar tension between the desire to prioritize the value of one's own individual existence and the reality of being designed by God to find fulfillment in communion with others. In each case, these tensions can be effectively addressed, but by different means—the path toward and realization of enlightenment in Buddhism, and transformation in "reconciliation with God and neighbor, achieved on the way of Christ" in Christianity (p. 28). The key insights gained on these respective paths of a liberating emptiness in Buddhism and an ultimate relational reality in Christianity are seemingly diametrically opposed, but they are both made available to all through their founding events. Heim notes that the Buddha's "decision to … teach the path to others made it a universal event," while "the presence of God in Jesus may have been located in one person, but it happened to the humanity shared by all and took place in a social community that is part of the whole of history" (p. 35). He finds a parallel between what he refers to as "two miracles" (chapter 1) in each tradition, which allow for the universality of these paths. For bodhisattvas, it is necessary to realize a "nonabiding nirvanā" whereby the nondual nature of enlightenment is encountered but not clung to while also using "skillful means" to move individuals beyond conventional truth...

Near-native, nativelike or native? Some terminological and conceptual remarks on L2 ultimate attainment research

The main objective of this paper is to draw attention to the problem of the inconsistent and potentially confusing use of the terms near-native, nativelike and native with reference to study participants and their level of L2 ultimate attainment in age-related research, as well as to highlight certain conceptual discrepancies pertaining to this issue. A basic analysis of some of the best-known publications in the relevant literature has demonstrated that the terms near-native and nativelike are not always defined in the same way, and furthermore, distinct criteria are applied to select highly advanced subjects for studies which set out to determine whether reaching a nativelike (native) level of L2 proficiency is feasible, thereby supporting or challenging the Critical Period Hypothesis. Such a state of affairs might have serious implications both for the methodology of L2 ultimate attainment research and the interpretation of the corresponding results. It is also argued that adopting a more bilingual-oriented approach to nativelikeness and reconsidering the role of the native speaker as the yardstick for L2 performance may significantly benefit the SLA theory by facilitating the interpretation of the findings and increasing the validity of studies investigating the age factor in L2 acquisition.

Individual Differences in First and Second Language Ultimate Attainment and Their Causes

Individual Differences in First and Second Language Ultimate Attainment and Their Causes

Cognitive Language Aptitude

AbstractAfter discussing key issues in the aptitude literature and presenting an updated, multicomponential model of cognitive language aptitude, we consider two analyses from a longitudinal investigation using aptitude to predict success in language learning. Aptitude is conceptualized as a special talent for learning languages and a ceiling on success. In other words, for any given person, when motivation is high, personality facets are aligned, and the learning context is excellent, differences in aptitude determine ultimate attainment. Findings show that the full Modern Language Aptitude Test and the full High‐Level Language Aptitude Battery each predicted adult language learning success outcomes. In addition, different combinations of components drawn from these two (by design) complementary aptitude batteries predicted different aspects of basic and advanced proficiency and did so above and beyond nonaptitude variables, such as childhood exposure, previous language learning, age at the time of training, level of education, and enjoyment.

Multilingualism and theories of second language acquisition in Africa

AbstractThis article analyzes Multiple Language Acquisition (MLA) and functioning in Africa as a case study of multilingualism. It interrogates central aspects of the dominant L2 acquisition (SLA) paradigm that is predicated primarily on mother tongue (L1) monolingualism, and presents data that document high levels of individual multilingualism (3–8 languages), and the achievement of native to near‐native proficiency in three to five of them. The article draws upon these findings to critique key tenets of SLA theories, focusing on the ‘Critical Period Hypothesis’ (CPH) and its extension to the acquisition of additional languages beyond L1; its use as an explanatory tool for the development of the so‐called ‘interlanguage’ grammars by learners; and their failure to achieve the ‘ultimate attainment’ in L2, L3, and Ln. It is argued that CPH is inapplicable to L2, L3, and Ln, because it fails to predict native‐like proficiency beyond L1. It concludes by offering an explanation for the achievement of ‘native‐like’ proficiency in several languages by post‐pubescent Africans.

Experience, aptitude and individual differences in native language ultimate attainment

Several recent studies have demonstrated that some native speakers do not fully master some fairly basic grammatical constructions of their language, thus challenging the widely-held assumption that all native speakers converge on the same grammar. This study investigates the extent of individual differences in adult native speakers' knowledge of a range of constructions as well as vocabulary size and collocational knowledge, and explores the relationship between these three aspects of linguistic knowledge and four nonlinguistic predictors: nonverbal IQ, language aptitude, print exposure and education. Individual differences in grammatical attainment were comparable to those observed for vocabulary and collocations; furthermore, performance on tests assessing speakers' knowledge of these three aspects of language was correlated (rs from 0.38 to 0.57). Two of the nonlinguistic measures, print exposure and education, were found to contribute to variance in all three language tests, albeit to different extents. In addition, nonverbal IQ was found to be relevant for grammar and vocabulary, and language aptitude for grammar. These findings are broadly compatible with usage-based models of language and problematic for modular theories.

Production Accuracy of L2 Vowels: Phonological Parsimony and Phonetic Flexibility

Ultimate attainment in foreign-language sound learning is addressed via vowel production accuracy in English spoken by advanced Czech EFL learners. English FLEECE–KIT, DRESS–TRAP, and GOOSE–FOOT contrasts are examined in terms of length, height, and backness. Our data show that, while being constrained by phonemic category assimilation (new vowel height distinctions are not created), the learners’ interlanguage combines phonological parsimony (reusing L1 length feature to contrast L2 vowels) with phonetic flexibility (within-category shifts reflecting L1–L2 phonetic dissimilarity). Although achieving nativelike phonological competence may not be possible learners who acquire L2 in the prevailingly L1 environment, the Czech learners’ implementations of English vowels revealed their ability to adjust for phonetic detail of L2 sounds.

Ultimate attainment in Spanish spirantization

AbstractThis study examines the acquisition of the Spanish spirantization of /b/, /d/ and /g/ by a group of very advanced L2 learners who immigrated to Spain from the United States and have lived in central Spain for many years. While spirantization has received considerable attention in previous L2 research on Spanish, the participants in previous studies have typically been newer learners of Spanish, typically studying at the university level. By examining the production of immigrants to Spain, the present study provides insight into ultimate attainment, and whether this results in a native-like pronunciation in the case of spirantization. Productions are examined both categorically to determine the manner of articulation employed (i.e., approximant, fricative, stop) and also gradiently, using intensity measurements to determine the degree of spirantization when approximants are produced. The comparisons for manner of articulation show significant differences between native Spanish speakers and L2 learners, although when approximants are produced the intensity measurements often do not differ significantly between the two groups. The degree to which individual learners approach native-like pronunciation, both in terms of manner of articulation and intensity measurements of produced approximants, varies considerably.

Sounding native: rating speakers of English from Asia

This study explores whether a shift is taking place in terms of how the native speaker construct is viewed in relation to Asian Englishes. It investigates this issue through a speech ratings task. The goal of the current research is not to judge nativeness or ultimate attainment of the participants. Rather, the study investigates whether the construct of native speaker is being redefined as new varieties of English are gaining acceptance as legitimate varieties of English. The study comprises ratings of speech samples from 33 native speakers of English from Asia and 7 native speakers of English from Inner Circle countries. A total of 45 listeners rated each sample for nativeness on a 9-point Likert scale. The study also examined how listeners’ perceptions of where the speaker was from and which the variety they felt the speaker spoke influenced ratings, as well as how the listeners’ own backgrounds influenced ratings.

A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers

Children learn language more easily than adults, though when and why this ability declines have been obscure for both empirical reasons (underpowered studies) and conceptual reasons (measuring the ultimate attainment of learners who started at different ages cannot by itself reveal changes in underlying learning ability). We address both limitations with a dataset of unprecedented size (669,498 native and non-native English speakers) and a computational model that estimates the trajectory of underlying learning ability by disentangling current age, age at first exposure, and years of experience. This allows us to provide the first direct estimate of how grammar-learning ability changes with age, finding that it is preserved almost to the crux of adulthood (17.4 years old) and then declines steadily. This finding held not only for “difficult” syntactic phenomena but also for “easy” syntactic phenomena that are normally mastered early in acquisition. The results support the existence of a sharply-defined critical period for language acquisition, but the age of offset is much later than previously speculated. The size of the dataset also provides novel insight into several other outstanding questions in language acquisition.

Second language ultimate attainment: Effects of maturation, exercise, and social/psychological factors

Mayberry and Kluender (2017) offer a rich review of empirical research that contributes to the understanding of age-related effects on first and second language acquisition. Their keynote article compiles current, primarily linguistic and neurolinguistic, research on the notion of a critical period for language (CPL). The authors conclude “that the putative CPL applies to L1 learning, and that L2 effects are a consequence of this prior learning” (Mayberry & Kluender, 2017: p. 6). As they propose a clear role for CPL in L1 learning, and because their exact position on its role in L2 learning is, to my mind, not as clearly articulated, I will take the opportunity to argue the following: If a CPL exists at all, it should have identifiable implications for all kinds of language acquisition (cf. Gleitman & Newport, 1995). In the case of L2 acquisition what needs to be identified is how maturational constraints (implicated by a CPL) interact with other conditions that are at hand when the second language comes onto the scene.

Nonconvergence on the native speaker grammar: Defining L2 success

The issue of critical or sensitive periods affecting the outcome of second language (L2) acquisition has been the subject of intense investigation and debate for many years, with people arguing for or against maturational effects on ultimate attainment. In their influential paper, Johnson and Newport (1989) identify two hypotheses: the exercise hypothesis and the maturational state hypothesis. According to the former, if the capacity for acquiring language is exercised early in life (in first language acquisition), then language learning abilities will remain intact throughout life: in other words, permitting successful L2 acquisition regardless of age. In contrast, according to the maturational state hypothesis, the language learning capacity declines with age, affecting L2 acquisition as well as late L1. Johnson and Newport take their results, which show an age-related decline in performance during childhood and adolescence, to support the maturational state hypothesis. Many L2 researchers have adopted a maturational perspective and have reached similar conclusions as to the presence of critical or sensitive periods (e.g., Abrahamsson, 2012; DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005; Long, 1990; Oyama, 1976; Patkowski, 1980). Some researchers have pointed out that age effects continue into adulthood, contrary to the claim for a critical period (e.g., Birdsong & Mollis, 2001). Others have suggested that what looks like an age-related maturational decline may be accounted for by confounding factors, such as task effects, effects of L1, amount of L2 use, education or input (e.g., Bialystok & Miller, 1999; Flege, Yeni-Komshian & Liu, 1999).