Ulrich Zwingli Research Articles

Interpreting the Sabbath Among the Swiss Reformed

Among the many changing practices during the Reformation, Sabbath observance gained increasing importance as interpretations and practices evolved, leading to divisions among different traditions and disagreements within those traditions. Sabbath theology helped distinguish confessional identity. This study aims to delve deeper into Swiss Reformed interpretations of specific Scriptures that provide the basis for theological conclusions and practical applications regarding Sabbath. It focuses on four key passages in Isaiah (1:13–15, 56:2–8, 58:13–14, and 66:22–24) that contributed to the biblical basis for interpretations of Sabbath among the reformers. By comparing interpretations, we gain a more complete picture of the Swiss Reformed perspectives on Sabbath and observe a pattern of religious change as these religious ideas spread across different regions of the Swiss Confederation from the 1520s to the 1580s. The Swiss Reformed interpreters include Johannes Oecolampadius (1482–1531) in Basel, Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) and Konrad Pellikan (1478–1556) in Zurich, Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563) in Bern, and Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575) and Rudolf Gwalther (1519–1586) in Zurich again. The questions addressed in working through their interpretations include which meanings of Sabbath they emphasize, distinctions they make regarding the Sabbath commandment, aspects of Sabbath they think are perpetual, and the day of the week they argue Christians should observe Sabbath. This portrait of Sabbath interpretations among the Swiss Reformed depicts the gradual development toward stricter and more comprehensive views on Sabbath practice among Reformed Christians and gives voice to the unique understandings of these individual Swiss Reformed theologians in the sixteenth century.

Ulrico Zuinglio. Una biografía como teología

This work is an approach to the life of the Swiss reformer Ulrich Zwingli in the XVI century. In this work Zwingli’s life is understood as a locus theologicus, where his passion and commitment to the church and its reform is remarkable. This occurred during his pre-Reformed life, that is, during his priestly ministry in the cities of Glarus and Einsiedeln, and continued into his Reformed life, during his pastoral ministry in the city of Zurich. In the different stages of Zwingli’s life, the God’s presence is implicit, specifically in his concern for the Church, which is evident in the dominant and regulating images of his life that have theological content.

The Talk of the Town: Information and Community in Sixteenth-Century Switzerland by Carla Roth

Internet social-media algorithms deluge today’s users with unreliable and sometimes contradictory information. This small but dense book offers some unusual perspectives about similarly unreliable and contradictory oral information five centuries ago in the small, prosperous, and autonomous Swiss city of St. Gallen, home of one of Latin Christendom’s most famous abbeys. Roth’s source, the “Commentaries” of linen maker Johannes Rüdinger (1501–1556), contains about 2,000 miscellaneous entries, more than 70 percent of them from 349 local informants during the decade after the city adopted the Reformation in 1529 (37). The existence of this private miscellany—alongside several local chroniclers and diarists, some Catholic and others now unknown—remained hidden for two centuries (26–34).Rüdinger’s collection is extremely unusual in two important ways. First, he anticipated Foucault’s “disappearance of the author” by four centuries, saying almost nothing about his household, his business, and his rare and short travels, and treating his growing political career with great modesty.1 As Roth summarizes, he wrote “about almost anything except himself” (18–19). Second, he translated all his material into an abridged Latin that he maintained after leaving the University of Basel in the mid-1520s to enter his family’s (and his city’s) principal business. This second peculiarity had equally peculiar social consequences: As Roth’s admirable set of Venn diagrams demonstrates, Rütinger’s principal informants came from two mutually exclusive groups—his fellow businessmen, neighbors, and relatives and the city’s literary and intellectual elite (46).A quarter-century ago, a multinational European program about “Cultural Exchange in Europe 1400–1700” tried to investigate both the oral and written transmission of information during this era, but it lacked adequate raw materials. On this score, Roth exploits the third way that her source was exceptional: Rütinger, an active businessman with a humanist education, lived in a city that lacked both printing presses and a reliable postal service. Hence, he took less than 5 percent of his information from written or printed sources (59).Roth’s most exciting achievements interweave Rüdinger’s oral information with such written local sources as the legal records about a 1532 execution (97–100). Although his account “does not explicitly contradict any of the facts given in the trial,” it “nevertheless profoundly changes this initial interpretation of the case.” The salacious gossip that Rütiner recorded makes his account of Johannes Vogler, a mainstay of the Reformation in the Rhine Valley and an “eager lover of evangelical truth,” seemingly “drip with irony” (91). Another impressive achievement is the assessment that he offered about his various informants regarding the mysterious “Devil of Schiltach,” the woman reputed to have set fire to that town in 1533 and later tried as a witch (121–127).Rütinger listened to women as well as to men. His most important female source by far was not his wife or kin but an old midwife who regaled him with stories about the private life of various prominent local citizens after helping with the birth of two of his children (80–86). He also collected obscene jokes, some from the old midwife, men being the usual targets; his nastiest one is profoundly anti-Catholic (58, 67–69, 71).In Roth’s words, “Rüdinger’s views on religion were … fairly conventional for Protestant St. Gall” (22). His “Commentaries” reflect the city’s declining optimism during a decade that began as a “wondrous time” but soured two years later when its Abbot returned after the defeat of the city’s Zurich allies at the battle of Kappel. By the time Rüdinger abruptly stopped recording, St. Gall’s future seemed ominous. In his seven accounts of this battle during the next seven years, the number of Zurich’s pastors killed alongside Ulrich Zwingli on the battlefield increased every time that he mentioned it (156). Chapeau!

Filip Melanchton i 500 lat jego Loci communes (1521)

In Poland, the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century is most often associated with Martin Luther. However, together with Luther, the reforms were introduced into the Church by Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich, while Philip Melanchthon, Luther’s friend and collaborator, was a very important theologian in Germany. It was him who determined the ultimate doctrinal and organizational form of Lutheranism. Melanchthon was a theologian and a humanist, the reformer of German education, author of numerous textbooks widely used in all over Renaissance Europe, including Poland and Lithuania. One of Melanchthon’s major textbooks was Loci communes (1521). In this book, Melanchthon made an attempt to systematize evangelical doctrines. Consequently, it is considered the first evangelical theology textbook and, at the first time, the first work on Protestant dogmas.

The History of the Reformation of the Church in the 16th Century and Its Influence on the Church Today

The history of the reformation of the church is a very long and very memorable history for the church. The Reformation was an attempt by the reformers to return the church to biblical authority. The life of the church before the reformation was very far from the truth of the Bible, where church leaders carried out deviations and heretical teachings. Many church leaders take advantage of their position to gain profit, for example the sale of a pardon. Luther invited people at that time to turn to the true teachings of the Bible. Outside of Martin Luther, there were also reformers who continued Luther's work, namely John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli. After 500 years of church reformation, the church today is still feeling the effects of the reformation although there are still churches that deviate from the teachings of the Bible. The church reformation changed wrong mindsets and views and brought believers to the true truth of the Bible. The results of the reformation brought believers to the true knowledge of Jesus Christ. The situation before the reformation and after the reformation is very different, where the entire leadership in the church has been changed. Leaders in the church today are not only governed by the pastor but also by people who have been chosen and determined.

The Image of a Pious Young Man in Epistolary Genre of the XVI Century (on the Example of Ulrich Zwingli’s Letter to his Stepson Herald Meyer)

The article considers some features of the epistolary genre from the point of view of its pedagogical potential. A Letter from the Swiss reformer Ulrich Zwingli to his stepson Herald Meyer is also briefly analyzed. According to the author, this work is the most complete and, at the same time, concise example of a letter of instruction to a young person. It reflects three directions of the young man's relationship: with God, with himself, and with the world (surrounding people). In General, the same scheme of relations is already present in the ancient era (Cicero's treatise «On duties»).

Zwingli’s Role in the Reformation of Berne

"The goal of this paper is to discuss Zwingli’s role in the Reformation of Bern. Firstly, the earliest period of Berne’s reformation is discussed, including the priority of Luther’s influence on the city. Then those channels are discussed by which Zwingli practised a leading role in the city’s evangelical movement; namely his writings relating to Berne and his extended correspondence. By Zwingli’s correspondence, those persons are introduced who nourished close relationship with the Zurich reformer, especially Berchtold Haller. Finally, Zwingli’s role at the Disputation of Berne and in the consolidation of the Bernese Reformation is examined. Keywords: Protestant Reformation, Ulrich Zwingli, Reformation of Bern, Reformation of Zurich, Berchtold Haller, Johannes Oecolampadius "

Idolatry and the Construction of the Spanish Empire

Mina García Soormally’s engaging monograph shows that the category of idolatry tells modern-day readers more about the mindset of European colonizers than the Native peoples charged with heresy. Although the biblical prohibition against the veneration of false idols appeared straightforward, Soormally maintains that Spaniards used this polyvalent category to condemn those aspects of Indigenous peoples’ lives deemed improper such as their sexual relationships, forms of agriculture, and concepts of time (19). Soormally examines chronicles of the Indies, evangelization plays, and literature from both sides of the Atlantic to bridge the gap between “European studies and those on the colonies” (xii). Following Felipe Fernández-Armesto’s (1987: 152) concept of the “Atlantic Mediterranean,” Soormally coins the term Catholic Atlantic to refer to the confluence of geography and politics in areas where Catholic values were implanted and to better assess how physical spaces related to the customs and cultures of European societies (xii, 73).Chapter 1 provides the historical background of European theologians’, bishops’, and clerics’ views regarding magic and witchcraft in the Middle Ages, which, eventually, led to the founding of the Spanish Inquisition. Soormally highlights that Protestant reformers such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Ulrich Zwingli accused the Church of corruption and idolatry precisely at the same time when Spanish Catholics evangelized and implemented what they considered to be the “purest of orthodoxies” in the Americas (24). Chapter 2 examines the relationship between the colonization of the Americas and Spain’s Reconquest, during which time Spaniards used religious discrimination to build and sustain their transoceanic enterprises. Soormally shows how the forced conversion of Moors and Jews in Iberia created a tense political climate in which Catholic Spaniards grew anxious about apostasy, blasphemy, and backsliding. This ethos, however, gave Spaniards the experience needed to occupy foreign territories and subjugate Indigenous peoples in the Canary Islands, New Spain, and Peru (39).In chapter 3, Soormally examines the theatrical performances of Indigenous actors in evangelization plays such as Ejemplo del juicio final and La conquista de Jerusalén, demonstrating that Spaniards also employed drama as an instrument in their spiritual conquest and that Native groups, such as the Tlaxcalans, used these plays to assert their newfound status as Christians (107). Soormally contends that these newly founded Christian societies needed outcasts and idolaters to differentiate the haves from the have-nots, which led to the creation of a state reliant on marginalized subalterns (118). Chapter 4 reevaluates the iconic tale of the Virgen de Guadalupe and Juan Diego to assess how an exported European symbol, that is, Mary, could become a source of national pride for Indigenous peoples. Soormally argues that Catholic missionaries sought to prevent pagan devotion to the Aztec mother-god Tonantzin. Therefore, sixteenth-century clerics transposed the cult of Tonantzin into that of the Virgin Mary (139). Soormally doubts the historical authenticity of Juan Diego and his encounters with Mary and Fray Juan de Zumárraga, noting that sincere belief in these encounters benefited the Dominican archbishop Alonso de Montúfar, since his assigned role was to convert numerous Indigenous peoples. Soormally casts further doubt on the event itself, noting that Zumárraga never mentioned an encounter with Juan Diego in any of his personal or official writings (162). In sum, Soormally has written an excellent monograph that connects Spain to the Americas, bringing religion to the fore of Spanish conquest. Scholars and students of Latin American history, religious studies, and literature will, no doubt, enjoy Soormally’s cogent argumentation, novel insight, and excellent translations.

The influence of socio-political events in Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries on the development of legal doctrine of Modern history

In the history of the country’s development there are periods in which significant changes in social, political and economic life take place. These undoubtedly include the period of the European Reformation of the XVI-XVII centuries. Socio-political events in critical periods are at the same time the source of development in the legal sphere, when often in the struggle crystallize new, necessary for the development of the state, legal provisions of a doctrinal nature. The aim of this paper is to analyze the socio-political events in Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries, the results of the Thirty Years’ War and the significance of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 in terms of influencing the development of legal doctrine of Modern history, and also to provide a comparison with the peculiarities of the socio-political situation that took place in the Ukrainian lands of that time. It is noted that since the beginning of the XVI century. almost the entire world of that time was covered by the Reformation. First of all, it was a broad socio-political movement that took the form of a struggle with the Catholic Church. Against this backdrop of socio-political and economic change, Protestantism has become widespread throughout Europe, associated with the names of Martin Luther, Jean Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. At the same time, the Catholic Church and the Jesuits opposed the Reformation and led the Counter-Reformation. The result of this confrontation was the Thirty Years’ War - the first pan-European war of 1618 – 1648 between the Catholic Union and the coalition of Protestant states. In European history, this war has remained one of the most terrible European conflicts. Historians estimate that more than 2 million military and more than 6 million civilians were killed. Thirty Years’ War in Europe in the XVII century. ended with the signing in 1648 at the same time in Münster and Osnabrück peace treaty, which was called the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. It is emphasized that the Peace of Westphalia contains a number of provisions of a doctrinal nature. It is made conclusion that this treaty was the source of modern international law and had a long-term impact on the development of relations between states. Among the most important principles of doctrinal nature are the following: state sovereignty has become a universally recognized legal category; the principle of freedom of conscience is recognized with certain restrictions; the idea of sovereignty and independence of each state was opposed to the idea of a single Christian community; proclaimed the idea of ensuring certain human rights, especially the principle according to which private property and the rights of citizens of a hostile state could not be changed by war. Ukrainian ties with European events of that era also took place. This was reflected in the text of the Treaty of Osnabrück, where Ukrainians are noted as allies of Sweden, and the Treaty determined the relevant international legal status of Transylvania at that time. It is noted that the period of the Reformation coincides with the events in Ukraine, as a result of which the Ukrainian Liberation War began, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Keywords: European Reformation, Peace of Westphalia, legal doctrine, origins of law, the Revolution of Bohdan Khmelnytsky.

Communicatio Idiomatum: Reformation Christological Debates by Richard Cross

Reviewed by: Communicatio Idiomatum: Reformation Christological Debates by Richard Cross Aaron Moldenhauer Communicatio Idiomatum: Reformation Christological Debates. By Richard Cross. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. 312 pp. Richard Cross takes a unique approach to the Christological debates among sixteenth-century Reformers. He does not survey the course of the debates, nor does he consider the many scriptural or patristic arguments raised. Instead, he limits his inquiry to a rigorous analysis of the metaphysical and semantic arguments made by Lutheran and Reformed theologians as they debated the communication of attributes. Cross’s goal is neither to judge which position is correct nor to provide a complete picture of the debates. Instead, he offers deep analysis of key snapshots in the course of the discussion that illuminate the metaphysical and semantic arguments. The result is a book that applies a typical methodology used to analyze scholastic philosophical theology to key moments of Reformation debates about the person of Christ. This approach situates Cross’s work among other works exploring the relation of the Reformers’ Christology to philosophy. Older analyses of Luther’s Christology, influenced by Reinhard Schwarz, argued that Luther broke cleanly with scholastic approaches to the person of Christ since Luther found late medieval metaphysics and semantics unsuited for Christology. Graham White’s Luther as Nominalist (1984) counters Schwarz’s approach by identifying continuities between the scholastics and Luther. In recent years works such as Joar Haga’s Was There a Lutheran Metaphysics? (2012) and David Luy’s Dominus Mortis (2014) have continued this conversation. Cross assumes two points debated in these and other works. First, Cross assumes that the Reformers made metaphysical and semantic arguments in their Christology. Second, Cross assumes that the Reformers knew and used scholastic Christology. The validity of these assumptions can be judged by assessing Cross’s work. An expert in medieval theology, Cross proceeds by [End Page 484] identifying and labeling arguments. While medieval theologians explicitly identified these arguments, the Reformers did not. Despite this difference in style, Cross argues that the Reformers raised metaphysical and semantic arguments and intended them to be taken seriously. Cross reduces key arguments to symbolic representation, using logical shorthand and identifying various positions by initials for ease of future reference. For instance, Cross isolates one of Luther’s arguments raised in his Christological debate with Ulrich Zwingli. Luther held that the two natures of Christ cannot be spatially separated without dividing the person of Christ. Accordingly, wherever Christ’s divine nature is, there Christ’s human nature must also be present. Otherwise the person of Christ is divided. Cross labels this argument as “impossibility of bodily separability” and abbreviates it as “the IBS principle.” He defines IBS as the argument: “If the natures lack two-way spatial inseparability, the person is not indivisible” (59–65). Cross’s list of such frequently cited principles runs close to two pages, showing the extent of his research into primary sources and the precision of his analysis. This type of analysis applied to the conceptually dense material of Reformation Christology demands careful attention from the reader. Cross succeeds in identifying metaphysical and semantic arguments raised by Reformers and in showing that the Reformers knew scholastic Christology, raising questions about how cleanly the Reformers broke with late medieval scholasticism. However, those interested in the debate will need to look beyond this book for a complete picture of Reformation Christology. Cross does not ask how important the arguments he analyzes were in relation to the scriptural, patristic, or other arguments raised. Nor does he ask how significant it is that the Reformers broke with medieval theologians as they pushed philosophical arguments to the background of their work. That is, the reader must recognize the limits of the study that Cross assigns himself. When the limited scope of the book is kept in mind, Cross’s work provides a window into an important facet of Reformation Christology and raises broader questions about the role of philosophy in Reformation theology. [End Page 485] Aaron Moldenhauer Concordia University Wisconsin Mequon, Wisconsin Copyright © 2021 Johns Hopkins University Press and Lutheran Quarterly, Inc

Einblicke in Zürichs Bibliothekswesen und Gelehrtenkultur in der Frühen Neuzeit

Zurich has repeatedly been described as a city of a particular reading culture. The medieval monastic libraries of the city preserved a great number of precious books. The richness and diversity of this cultural heritage was decimated in 1524/1525, when in the course of the implementation of the Reformation great numbers of Roman catholic books, in particular liturgical texts, were destroyed. After Ulrich Zwingli’s death in 1531, the reformer Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575) and the Franciscan scholar Conrad Pellikan (1478–1556) began to reorganize the Grossmünster library. The book collection of this new library, which was connected to the Latin school at the Grossmünster, contained remnants of the old Zurich monasteries as well as many books from the library of Ulrich Zwingli. Later on, the Grossmünster library served as a base for Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), who published his influential “Bibliotheca universalis” in Zurich in 1545. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, despite the considerable importance of the Grossmünster library for professors and students of the so called “Schola Tigurina”, this book collection did no longer satisfy the intellectual needs of the younger generation of students. Hence, in 1629, four young citizens of Zurich founded the city-library (Stadtbibliothek), located in the “Wasserkirche”, a church on asmall island in the River Limmat. This library grew rapidly. Within these walls the “Collegia”, the first Enlightenment societies in German-speaking Europe, originated in the seventeenth and the early eighteenth-century.

Philosophy of social policy in Europe of the XVI century on the example of works of the Spanish thinker Juan Luis Vives

The object of this research is the European thought in the area of social policy in the early XVI century. The subject of this research is the ideas of Spanish philosopher Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540) on helping to people in need. The article reviews the stance on social policy of the Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives. His thoughts are analyzed in the context of the contemporary to him doctrines of the founders of Protestantism – Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli and Jean Calvin, as well as practices formed in the continental Europe and England in the XVI century. The teachings of theologians and philosophers of the XVI century are relevant within the framework of studying social policy from the perspective of ideas, as well as the history of institutions. The comparative-historical approach was applied for studying the practices in the area of social policy and their evolution. A discourse analysis is used for examination of Vives’ basic postulates alongside the ideas of the key philosophers of that time. The following conclusions were made: 1) despite the fact that a number of authors expressed similar ideas, Juan Luis Vives can be called the first theoretician of the social state 2) the establishment of social policy in the research literature is usually associated with Protestantism, but the theory was developed by the Catholic Vives, and the practical measures were implemented by the Catholic kings Carlos and Francis 3) Vives expressed the paramount idea of social policy – the state should prevent from marginalization of citizens in order to maintain social stability. At the same time, marginalization is caused by both, absence of help to the people in need or unwise rendering of assistance, which accustoms to idleness.

ANABAPTİST DİNİ HAREKETİ HUTTERİTLERİN ORTAK YAŞAM İNANCI VE KOLONİ YAPISI

Anabaptists were influenced by the 16th century reform movement, occurring in some parts of the Western Europe from 1520 to 1530. Anabaptism was constituted as a group that opposed Catholics and Protestants in their authority in the Christian world, and argued that it is needed to return to the Bible. Most Anabaptists have reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two based on the Bible, claiming that the ritual of baptism and the eucharist are of the only sacraments. The main view of Anabaptists is that pedobaptism is not the true baptism, and therefore the baptisms that had been made until then were not valid. According to them, true baptism is the baptism for adult-believers, since the one who will be baptized must know what baptism means, and must have in mind that he can profess faith. For this reason, a child must grow old enough to decide whether or not to attend the church. Therefore, they argue that it is not possible for an infant to profess faith, and that the pedobaptism is not of valid baptism. They also reject the authority of the Protestants, as they did not accept the Pope being the authority in the Christian world. Hutterites, whose roots are based on the Protestant Reform, also emerged in 1528 in Moravia, the current Czechia, as a group of Anabaptist Christians. Hutterites formed their basic principles of belief such as baptism for adult-believers, communal lifestyle based on the common use of goods, pacifism systemized standing off from the state and the other churches. Hutterites were declared heretic by the state, the Catholics, the Lutheran churches, and the reform churches of John Kalvin and Ulrich Zwingli because of these beliefs. Those who were caught, and did not renounce their faith returning to the state church were executed by hanging, beheading, drowning, and burning. Following the Hutterites, they migrated from Moravia to Hungary, Romania, Russia, the United States and Canada to maintain their beliefs. Hutterites shaped their beliefs during the Protestant Reform. Unlike other Christians, they lived together by sharing all their assets. They called it “community of goods”. When asked why they live sharing all their assets, Peter Reidemann, one of the first Hut- terite leaders and seniors, answered, “In the beginning, God decided that humans should not have anything individually, but they should have everything in common with each other.” The Hutterites believed that, based on the History of the Apostles and the New Covenant passages, all Christians should maintain their lives in accordance with a shared lifestyle, economically and spiritually. The Hutterites believed that, based on the History of the Apostles and the New Covenant passages, all Christians should continue their lives with a common lifestyle, economically and spiritually. On the other hand, they believed that God wants all Christians to live far from earthly life that’s under the influence of the devil. The fact that they prefer to wear plain dresses is proof that they live acting indifferent to earthly life. Another important belief is that they are peace-lovers. Their pacifist beliefs indicate complete prohibition of participation in all kinds of civilian institutions count in and promote violence such as military service, judgeship and judicature. Therefore, Hutterites do not pursue any political purpose. Hutterites preferred to migrate when their beliefs were convicted, and requests were made against their beliefs. While the last place they migrated to is America, they have had a rich life in the North America, they have never lived such a prosperous life anywhere they migrated to before, and this prosperous life has enabled them to increase their population without any restriction. Thus, Hutterites colonies expanded, and the administrations of the colonies checked to see every fifteen or twenty years if the colonies were expanding in order to manage the colony administrations properly. If the colony has epanded, it is time to establish a new colony. The colony, which will be divided into two, must pay half the costs of the newly established colony. Hutterites do not lead a lifestyle in which the nuclear family structure is at the forefront, as in the Mennonites or the Swiss Brothers. It is a system in which the leadership hierarchy exists, advocating collectivism and inter-member egalitarianism, where the concept of colony is replaced, and men live with a shared lifestyle together for three or four generations. As a result of the communal lifestyle, written and verbal rules were established in the colony, and the work of the colony was shared by all members of the colony. Since Hutterites are a community that adopts a shared lifestyle, this lifestyle has brought along many social or economical problems in the colony. The biggest problem for them, however, is that members began to have personal assets, thereby endangering the colonial lifestyle.

Reformation und Bauernkrieg

Reformation and Peasants’ WarThis paper examines the connections and interactions between the Reformation and the German Peasants’ War. It focusses on the central actors of the two processes and shows the personal connections between the leaders of the different groups of reformation, i.e. Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, and the process of the uprising and the demands of the peasants. In addition, the aspect of space and the variety of demands will be addressed.

Zgromadzenia zakonne we współczesnym protestantyzmie. Zarys problematyki na przykładzie żeńskiej wspólnoty z Grandchamp

Christian Orders in Contemporary Protestantism. Outline of the Problem on the Example of the Female Community from Grandchamp The article concentrates on the renewal of monastic life in the European evangelical churches after 1945. The Reformation, initiated by the speech of Martin Luther (1483–1546), brought about great changes in this respect, questioning the current principles of the presence of the monk’s life in the Christian community. Criticism of religious life, formulated by the father of the Wittenberg Reformation, was undertaken by both Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) and John Calvin. Until the 19th century, monasticism had not seen rehabilitation of the churches that emerged in the wake of the Reformation. This did not mean, however, that it was completely forgotten. Due to renewal movements, including radical Pietism, which in the 17th and 18th centuries became popular in Protestant Europe, monastic issues returned. Eminent figures in the history of Christianity were discovered. Their world of faith and personal experience was mediated through community life, based on prayer rules and practices known since the time of the original church. At the same time in France, Germany and England a return to the abandoned ways of implementing Christian life began. The article analyses the inspiring community of Grandchamp to indicate the way tradition in the churches deriving from the Reformation has been discovered and re-read.

Miejsce Biblii w życiu Ulricha Zwingliego

Artykuł prezentuje centralne miejsce Biblii w życiu U. Zwingliego. Reformacja w Zurychu, której początki były głównie jego dziełem, ujawniła to na kilku polach: w kaznodziejstwie, prowadzonych dysputach teologicznych i w tzw. „szkole proroctw” (Prophezei). Na każdym z tych pól szwajcarski reformator eksponował autorytet Biblii – nieporównywalny z innymi autorytetami. Równocześnie podkreślał rolę Ducha Świętego w interpretacji tekstów biblijnych. Prawda o inspirującym działaniu Ducha Świętego, jak i prawda o suwerenności Boga leżą u podstaw życia i teologicznego dziedzictwa reformatora z Zurychu.

Permanent Revolution: The Reformation and the Illiberal Roots of Liberalism by James Simpson

Reviewed by: Permanent Revolution: The Reformation and the Illiberal Roots of Liberalism by James Simpson Clare Costley King'oo James Simpson. Permanent Revolution: The Reformation and the Illiberal Roots of Liberalism. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2019. Pp. xv, 444. $35.00. It is an oft-repeated axiom that the Protestant Reformation inaugurated the modern liberal era in the West. In abbreviated form, the story, derived largely from nineteenth-century "Whig" historiography, goes something like this. When Martin Luther dared to assert that salvation [End Page 411] was effected by faith alone (sola fide), and that theology and ecclesiology were to be judged by the Bible alone (sola scriptura), he inspired a radical religious movement that would rapidly unfetter Europe from the repressive, fraudulent bondage of the medieval Church. By encouraging individual parishioners to read the Scriptures on their own, and by simultaneously suggesting that the devout—as members of a nonhierarchical priesthood of all believers—had a personal duty to evaluate every Christian creed and convention against biblical standards, Luther permitted, perhaps even facilitated, widespread dissent from established dogma. In conflict with the long-held authority of the papacy, the intellectual ground was thus prepared for the cultivation of modern liberalism, with its affirmation of individual rights (for example, the right to consent to governance) and its concomitant emphasis on individual responsibilities (for example, the responsibility to participate in the democratic process). James Simpson's new monograph, Permanent Reformation: The Reformation and the Illiberal Roots of Liberalism, challenges every major assumption behind this narrative. In eighteen thought-provoking chapters (organized into seven parts), Simpson looks afresh at both the origins and the outcomes of the Protestant Reformation. His principal body of evidence comprises the literature of England, both polemical and imaginative, produced from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the end of the seventeenth century, or, roughly, from the reign of Henry VIII to that of Charles II. This substantial and varied literary archive, Simpson demonstrates, tells an unsettling tale. Though it is frequently avowed that modern liberalism descends in a direct line from the Reformation, an honest analysis of the literature of the time reveals that the genealogical relationship between liberalism and evangelicalism (Simpson's preferred term for Protestantism) might be better understood as a collateral one. Far from fostering liberal principles, Simpson stresses, the evangelical reasoning developed by Luther and his fellow reformers (Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, William Tyndale) advanced a stark authoritarianism in theology and politics—an authoritarianism that in one way or another shaped the work of writers as diverse as Edmund Spenser, William Shakespeare, John Milton, and John Bunyan. Moreover, to acknowledge the authoritarian tendencies of sixteenth-century Reformation theology is to recognize that the proto-liberalism that emerged in the closing decades of the seventeenth century (evident, for instance, in the political philosophy of John Locke) was formulated in complete antithesis to the dominant [End Page 412] evangelical outlook. Modern liberalism, Simpson suggests, should not, therefore, be viewed as the anticipated, legitimate heir to the Reformation, but rather as Protestant Christianity's unexpected, and somewhat rebellious, younger sibling. In addition to positing that evangelicalism and liberalism share an adjacent, sibling-like relationship (and thus an inevitable sibling-like rivalry), Simpson makes a second, larger, but more provisional, claim about the recursive structures of assertion and denial in all modern revolutionary contexts. Here, he borrows the phrase "permanent revolution" from Marxist theory (with an explicit nod to Leon Trotsky), using it as shorthand for his model of continuous reformation-in-refutation. Simpson proposes that it takes a minimum of 150 years for the fallout of any revolution to settle. With regard to the momentous upheaval of the Protestant Reformation, that period began, he submits, in the early sixteenth century, when Luther first endeavored to redesign Christian salvation, shunning the conciliatory customs of the Roman Church (such as the sacrament of penance) in favor of a soteriology based solely on divinely gifted faith. It ended a century-and-a-half later with the outright rejection by proto-Enlightenment thinkers of the many difficult social and psychological consequences of that Lutheran substitution. Herein lies the irony: precisely because evangelical discourse...

츠빙글리 신 인식을 통한 윤리적 문법 이해 : 4차 산업혁명의 역기능을 중심으로

Let God be God, let a human being be a human being. This was a core message of the Reformation. Can we claim the absoluteness of God and the relativeness of a human being in the age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution? Can the ultimate dignity and hope of humanity be emphasized not in the specific role or achievement of humans for the universe, but in the relationship with God and the covenant with God? Can we recognize the boundaries between God and human beings in this age of Artificial Intelligence?BR This article is an attempt to revisit the legacy of the Swiss Reformation which is the root of mainstream Protestantism in Korea and to reflect on the issue of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. In this regard the author reflects on these questions retrospectively and prospectively.BR This article is composed as follows: The first part focuses on the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and artificial intelligence. The second part deals with the subject of the Swiss Reformer Ulrich Zwingli, who dealt with the perception of God and human beings and their relations and derived theological ethics. The third part reflects on the relationship between God and humans in the age of artificial intelligence and the ethical issues in the age of acceleration.BR The Swiss Reformation was able to liberate people from the fear of oppression at the hands of the medieval Church, an institutional authority which was not based on the Bible. That is why the Reformers criticized people for being in captivity and claimed liberation from the authority and heterodoxy. Humanism was a movement that opposed institutional authority in the middle Ages and claimed human autonomy. But the reformers were looking for a third way, theonomy.BR In particular, the core ethical message of Zwingli’s Reformation was not to monopolize private power, but to call for justice of distribution in the light of divine Righteousness, not to pursue a personal goodness, but to pursue a common goodness. It was an attempt to reform the social structure through the Reformation. The Swiss Reformation still provides some direction and clue for finding solutions to the problems we face in the 21st century. It is related to the threefold relationship of God, humans and nature and to recognize human boundaries and limitedness.BR In this era when human individualization and machine humanization are accelerating, what we need is a common sense of purpose which based on the incarnation of God’s love instead of the divinization of human beings and global collaboration for the public goodness.BR

Hans Holbein the Younger and Reformation Bible Production

Hans Holbein the Younger produced a large corpus of illustrations that appeared in an astonishing variety of Bibles, including Latin Vulgate editions, Desiderius Erasmus's Greek New Testament, rival German translations by Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, the English Coverdale Bible, as well as in Holbein's profoundly influential Icones veteris testamenti (Images of the Old Testament)—to name only his better-known contributions. This essay discusses strategies that the artist developed for accommodating the heterogeneity of the various humanist and Reformation Bibles. For Erasmus's innovative Bibles, Holbein connected the text to the expansive concept of Renaissance humanist art, simultaneously portraying the new Bible and humanist art as part of a broadly defined cultural-philosophical discourse. Similarly, Holbein's production of Protestant Bibles, most importantly the epochal Luther Bible, associated the new text with the humanist Bible and, in so doing, conceptualized the humanist biblical image as a validation of religious art in a new context. Ultimately, the reliance on humanist art as a cultural authority mitigated perception of the heterogeneity of the text to the point that the publishers of Holbein's Icones completely displaced the text with the daring creation of a new genre: the picture Bible. With the exception of the iconography of royal supremacy in England, Holbein's Bible image was exceedingly movable, an artistic efficiency designed to contribute to the stability of the Bible image across a wide humanist and multiconfessional spectrum.

The reception of the upper German-Swiss reformation in the Pentecostal movement: Attempting an interpretation

ABSTRACTAlthough Pentecostalism as a renewal movement shares many basic values of the Reformation the question arises as to whether there are particular points that Pentecostals owe to that tradition? Is it possible to claim a reception given the diverse cultural contexts and ecclesial expressions of Pentecostalism? By focusing on the Upper German and Swiss Reformation attention will be paid to the understanding of the Lord’s Supper, the model of congregationalism and the hermeneutics that Ulrich Zwingli employed. Perhaps one should not take reception for granted.