Types Of Thoughts Research Articles

A comprehensive guide to research protocols for collecting and coding involuntary past and future thoughts

The paper presents a comprehensive guide for researchers investigating mind-wandering and related phenomena such as involuntary past and future thinking. Examining such spontaneous cognitions presents a challenge requiring not only the use of appropriate laboratory-based procedures, but also the coding of complex qualitative data. This guide outlines two main stages of existing research protocols: data acquisition and data coding. For the former, we introduce an easily modifiable computerized version of the vigilance task, designed for broad application in studies focusing on eliciting and measuring involuntary thoughts in controlled laboratory conditions. Regarding data preparation and coding, we provide a detailed step-by-step procedure for categorizing and coding different types of thoughts, involving both participants and competent judges. Additionally, we address some of the difficulties that may arise during this categorization and coding process. The guide is supplemented by a clip demonstrating the main part of the experimental procedure and a step-by-step example of the subsequent data processing stages. We anticipate that this research guide will not only assist a broader group of researchers interested in investigating spontaneous cognition, but will also inspire future studies on spontaneous cognition and related phenomena.•There is a need for standardized approaches to working with qualitative data when investigating spontaneous thoughts.•The paper outlines a comprehensive protocol for collecting and coding involuntary past and future-oriented thoughts.•The paper also presents a detailed step-by-step procedure for data preparation and coding to categorize different types of thoughts, involving both participants and competent judges.

Coexistence of thought types as an attentional state during a sustained attention task

Some studies have asked participants about attentional state on a scale from on-task to off-task, which set the middle option as attention focused on both, including the possibility of the coexistence of thoughts. In addition, studies using multidimensional probes explicitly assumed coexistence within spontaneous thoughts and task-focus dimensions. Although several studies have assumed the coexistence of some thought dimensions, none has explored whether these are different types of thoughts (task-focus, mind-wandering, task-related, external stimuli-related). To examine whether this coexistence of thought types occurred, we used thought probes to determine the degree of immersion in each. The participants responded to probes presented at random during a sustained attention task. The results revealed a mixture of thought types in many self-reports. In addition, the state of attentional allocation behind self-reports was estimated using the hidden Markov model. We observed the following attentional states: task-focused, task-unrelated, task-related, external stimuli-focused, and task-focused—but also focused on other thoughts. These results suggest that individuals can simultaneously allocate attention to thought types and discriminate between reporting. In some cases, probe options should also be considered for this coexistence. We also examined the relationship between self-reports and behavioral indexes, and discussed the necessity of separately measuring the degree of immersion for each thought type.

Why Tic Severity Changes from Then to Now and from Here to There.

Much of the research regarding Tourette’s syndrome (TS) has focused on why certain individuals develop tics while others do not. However, a separate line of research focuses on the momentary influences that cause tics to increase or decrease in patients who are already known to have TS or another chronic tic disorder (CTD). Environmental and internal variables such as fatigue, anxiety, and certain types of thoughts all have been shown to worsen tic severity and may even overcome the positive effects of treatment. Other influences such as stress, distraction, and being observed have had mixed effects in the various studies that have examined them. Still, other variables such as social media exposure and dietary habits have received only minimal research attention and would benefit from additional study. Understanding the impact of these environmental and internal influences provides an opportunity to improve behavioral treatments for TS/CTD and to improve the lives of those living with these conditions. This review will examine the current literature on how these moment-to-moment influences impact tic expression in those with TS/CTD.

COMPUTATIONAL MODEL FOR MENTAL FACTOR CLASSIFICATION

Artificial Wisdom is advancement of Artificial Intelligence where wisdom should be recognized with the intelligence. Wisdom can be realized by adding values in the positive decisions. This is resulted in to the overall behavior of human being. Behavior can be demonstrated with the help of simulating thought process. Thoughts are generated in the mind along with the mental state. Mental state also known as mental factor is responsible for arousal of different types of thoughts. Ancient Indian cannon Abhidhamm claimed 52 mental factors. These are categorized in three classes such as Ethically Variable Factor, Unwholesome Factor and Beautiful Factor. Proposed computational model of consciousness demonstrates the classification of the mental states. Dataset consists of 445 samples collected from various respondents by asking three questions. Preprocessing is performed by using the techniques of Natural language processing and nonaxiomatic logic. Convolutional Neural Network Machine learning technique applied to classify the mental factors. Performance of the proposed system is measured by applying statistical measures such as Accuracy, Precision, Specificity, Recall and F1-Score. Accuracy for small and large database is obtained as 86.92% and 93.02% respectively.

Arabic 4. Accentuating and Fenguing the Thinkings of Philosophers Inferencing from the Islamic Resources in The Light of “Al-Tamyi’z”

This article aims to accentuate the Islamic ideology about philosophers and their thoughts in the research perspectives of Abdul Aziz Al-Firharvi(1206AH-1239AH),modernistic broad minded islamic subcontinental scholar. Philosophy is one of the world beginning arts as it is related to the origin of all the sciences. It’s meaning of “love to wisdom” (that is interpretated by a strategy which leads a person to the prospects in the thinking Process of something), was actually getting used to Greece for the first time, In there many great philosophers like Ibna’ Zaqlas, Pythagore, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle established their reasonable views and opinions about the Creative and Developemental perspectives of the universe like the origin of the nature And resultantly the faculties of Theology(Al-Ilahiya’t) and Physics(Al-Tabi’at) materialised. Their views and opinions centered the basis of wisdom and that’s why they misunderstood in various types of thoughts like the many of the universe is eternal as god. Moreover; These thoughts met Islam and were polished on the purity. Then the muslim scholars denied these thoughts in every passing time when raised up. Firharvi’ is one of them who denied their thoughts on the basis of Quran and sunnah And made a middle ground between these two. He did many of the scholarly achievements in his life and Al-Tamyi’z is one of them in manuscript form. In its Preface, Firharvi’ has justified all of the Thinkings of Philosophers on the fundamentals of Quran and sunnah by summarizing these at his best. So, This article relates philosophy to Islamic Ideology as not to accept thinkings of philosophers outright, nor to neglect them in that way and there should be a middle between these two for the application of socio-philosophical rules on the society.

Neurocognitive patterns dissociating semantic processing from executive control are linked to more detailed off-task mental time travel

Features of ongoing experience are common across individuals and cultures. However, certain people express specific patterns of thought to a greater extent than others. Contemporary psychological theory assumes that individual differences in thought patterns occur because different types of experience depend on the expression of different neurocognitive processes. Consequently, individual variation in the underlying neurocognitive architecture is hypothesised to determine the ease with which certain thought patterns are generated or maintained. Our study (N = 178) tested this hypothesis using multivariate pattern analysis to infer shared variance among measures of cognitive function and neural organisation and examined whether these latent variables explained reports of the patterns of on-going thoughts people experienced in the lab. We found that relatively better performance on tasks relying primarily on semantic knowledge, rather than executive control, was linked to a neural functional organisation associated, via meta-analysis, with task labels related to semantic associations (sentence processing, reading and verbal semantics). Variability of this functional mode predicted significant individual variation in the types of thoughts that individuals experienced in the laboratory: neurocognitive patterns linked to better performance at tasks that required guidance from semantic representation, rather than those dependent on executive control, were associated with patterns of thought characterised by greater subjective detail and a focus on time periods other than the here and now. These relationships were consistent across different days and did not vary with level of task demands, indicating they are relatively stable features of an individual’s cognitive profile. Together these data confirm that individual variation in aspects of ongoing experience can be inferred from hidden neurocognitive architecture and demonstrate that performance trade-offs between executive control and long-term semantic knowledge are linked to a person’s tendency to imagine situations that transcend the here and now.

Anticipatory, Relief-Oriented and Permissive Beliefs in Patients with Suicidal Behaviors: An Exploratory Case-Control Study

Objective The objective is to propose a specific understanding of decision-making in suicidal behavior by using a psychometric instrument, namely the Suicidal Ambivalence Scale (SAS). The SAS, initially used in addictive disorders, allows to distinguish 3 types of thoughts: first anticipatory beliefs [A] (positive expectations regarding behavior); second relief-oriented beliefs [R] (aim to reduce the feeling of suffering) and finally, permissive beliefs [P] (authorize the passage to the act). In addictions disorders, these thoughts favor craving and the act of consumption. We make the hypothesis that the processes of suicidal thoughts function similarly to thought processes in addiction and that all thoughts [A, S and P] are significantly more present in suicidal patients. Methods 120 suicidal crisis patients and 161 healthy controls were compared on clinical dimensions (levels of depression, hopelessness). Anticipatory, relief-oriented and permissive beliefs were evaluated with the suicidal ambivalence scale. Results Patients have statistically more of beliefs in favor of suicidal behavior to compared healthy controls (t = 2.375, p = 0.019, d = 0.57), more particularly, anticipatory and permissive beliefs. Conversely, patients have statistically less of protective thoughts against the suicidal behavior to compared healthy controls (t = 2.195, p = 0.03, d = 0.499). Conclusion This study showed the role of anticipatory, relief-oriented and permissive beliefs in the suicidal crisis and the need to create a simple and easy to use clinical tool for more accurate assessments of beliefs in patients with the suicidal crisis.

Unformed lateralization of the brain hemispheres regarded as a neuropsychological feature of primary school children

The purpose of the study is to identify the neuropsychological features of primary school children (unformed lateralization of the brain hemispheres) that substantiate the necessity for changes in the organization of their learning process. The data of the research demonstrated the need to classify children of primary school age in accordance with the characteristics of their perception and the type of thinking. In the system of interactions between the brain hemispheres, signal systems and the type of thoughts, 7-8 year old pupils displayed the priority of reflecting the world through the first-signal system, stimulating the dominance of the activity of the right hemisphere, which determines the dominance of visual thinking. Children who are from 9 to 10 years old are characterized by the reflection through a second-signal system, a shift of the brain lateralization to the left hemisphere, and the development of abstract thinking. The results described above suggest that only at the age of 9-10, modern primary school children are ready to learn within the existing educational system; 7-8-year-old children are much worse at perceiving information transmitted through the words and are not ready for a learning pattern based on the use of abstract thinking; forced switching of children of this group from the right-hemisphere lateralization of the brain to the left-hemisphere leads to a state of hemispheric dysfunction and, as a result, to neurotic disorders. The education of primary school children must be approached in a differentiated way. The education system of 7-8 year old pupils, whose thinking needs to complete the development of visual thinking (not to leave the process incomplete) and to proceed to the formation of a second-signal system with the dominance of the left hemisphere, which determines the transition to abstract thinking, needs to be rebuilt by excluding the factors that traumatize neuro-physiological structures from it.

Maternal unwanted and intrusive thoughts of infant-related harm, obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression in the perinatal period: study protocol

BackgroundUnwanted, intrusive thoughts of harm-related to the infant are reported by the vast majority of new mothers, with half of all new mothers reporting unwanted, intrusive thoughts of harming their infant on purpose. Thoughts of intentional harm, in particular, are distressing to women, their partners and the people who care for them. While maternal, unwanted and intrusive thoughts of infant-related harm are known to be associated with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and depression, preliminary evidence suggests that they are not associated with an increased risk of harm to infants. Perinatal care providers and policy makers, as well as new mothers and their partners require evidence-based information in order to respond appropriately to these types of thoughts. The purpose of this research is to address important gaps regarding the (a) prevalence and characteristics of intrusive, unwanted thoughts of baby-related harm, (b) their association (or lack thereof) with child abuse, and (c) the prevalence and course of obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression in the perinatal period.MethodsParticipant were 763 English-speaking women and recruited during pregnancy. In this province-wide study in British Columbia, participants were recruited proportionally from hospitals, city centers and rural communities between January 23, 2014 and September 09, 2016. Participants were administered online questionnaires and diagnostic interviews over the phone at 33-weeks gestation, 7-weeks postpartum and 4-months postpartum. The study assessed intrusive and unwanted thoughts of harm related to the infant, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and major depressive episode (MDE) disorders and symptomatology, sleep, medical outcomes, parenting attitudes, and infant abuse.DiscussionThere is a scarcity of literature concerning maternal unwanted, intrusive, postpartum thoughts of infant-related harm and their relationship to child harming behaviors, OCD and depression. This longitudinal cohort study was designed to build on the existing research base to ensure that policy developers, child protection workers and health-care providers have the guidance they need to respond appropriately to the disclosure of infant-related harm thoughts. Thus, its main goals will be to investigate whether intrusive postpartum thoughts of infant-related harm are a risk factor for child abuse or the development of OCD.

Counterfactual thought in reasoning and performance

AbstractCounterfactual thoughts mutate reality to imagine how things might have been different than they actually are. These types of thoughts are more frequent when the antecedent is unusual or the outcome is temporally or numerically close. Counterfactuals have functional benefits for causal reasoning, motivation, intentions, and behavior change. However, they can also bias or hinder these same phenomena under certain conditions. In this article, we review the processes by which counterfactuals produce functional (vs. dysfunctional) outcomes and suggest that this relies on four essential criteria: a causal antecedent is identified accurately; the antecedent can be acted upon by the individual; the counterfactual thought facilitates the means or motivation to alter future behavior; and a future relevant opportunity for application is recognized. Counterfactuals will be functional to the extent that they satisfy all four criteria.

Men’s responses to women’s sexual refusals: Development and construct validity of a virtual dating simulation of sexual aggression.

To provide evidence regarding the construct validity of a sexual aggression proxy in which male participants go on multiple virtual dates with a woman. A unique strength of this proxy is participants' opportunity to make choices throughout the simulation about how they interact with their virtual date. These decisions determine their exposure to the female agent's sexual refusals. Piloting included focus groups (n = 82), surveys (n = 95), and cognitive interviews (n = 32). To establish construct validity, 87 male participants completed two separate sessions: 1) an online survey with measures of discriminant and convergent validity; and 2) a lab session in which they went on multiple dates that included nonsexual options, sexual options which the female agent accepted, and sexual options she refused. Sexual aggression was operationalized as the total number of sexual refusals that participants' received. There was strong correlational evidence for discriminant and convergent validity. As hypothesized, there were some differences in the risk factors associated with refusals received on casual as compared to steady dates. Additionally, the number of refusals received was associated with the types of thoughts and actions commonly reported by perpetrators. This simulation provides a new approach for examining sexual aggression in controlled experiments that vary factors within the simulation such as the man's and woman's intoxication and past sexual history. Because what happens is based on each individual's responses, it could be adapted for use in prevention and treatment programs.

Analysis of the Type of Visual Proof of Mathematically Gifted Students for the Principle of the Lever

본 연구에서는 중학교 수학영재들을 대상으로 Freudenthal이 강조한 안내된 재발명 학습 프로그램을 실시하였다. 학생들은 제시된 간단한 지레의 평형 그림을 보고 지레에 관련된 여러 성질을 발견하였으며 이를 적용하여 주어진 문제에서 지레가 평형이 되는지를 설명할 수 있었다. 이 과정에서 나타난 사고 유형은 4가지로 구분되었으며, 학생들은 네 가지 유형 중에서 유형 1-1과 유형 2*(1-1)을 일반화시킬 수 있는 방법으로 인식하고 이를 발전시켜 추의 무게의 비가 유리수인 경우에도 지레의 법칙이 성립한다는 것을 시각적으로 증명할 수 있었다. 본 탐구활동학습 프로그램을 통하여 학생들은 낮은 수준에서의 수학화 활동이 더 높은 수준에서의 탐구대상이 된다는 사실과 조직화 활동이 처음에는 비형식적으로 진행되지만 후에는 반영적 사고를 통하여 형식화된다는 사실을 체험하였다.In this study, we conducted guided reinvention learning program emphasized by Freudenthal in the middle school mathematically gifted class. The students were able to find various properties related to the lever by looking at the equilibrium picture of the simple lever, and by applying it, it was possible to explain whether the lever becomes equilibrium in a given problem. In this process, the types of thoughts were divided into four categories. Students recognized Type 1-1 and Type 2 * (1-1) out of the four types as a way to be generalized. Even if the ratio of the weight is rational, they could visually proved that the law of the lever is established. Through this Inquiry Activity Learning Program, students experience the fact that low level mathematical activity becomes a subject of inquiry at a higher level and that organization activity is formalized at first through informal thinking but later through reflective thinking.

Perceived justice, emotions, and behavioral intentions in the Taiwanese food and beverage industry

PurposeThe research framework of this study is based on tri-component attitude model (cognition-affect-conation) which explores consumers’ positive or negative emotions, as well as various types of thoughts and actions, triggered by their perceived justice in the context of service failure. This study aims to probe the possible mediating and moderating effects caused by the process where consumers form their thoughts and actions.Design/methodology/approachThis study conducts a survey to consumers after restaurant dining. This study collects data from 262 respondents and analyzes the data with the structural equation modeling.FindingsThe results indicate that perceived justice has significant effect on empathy, anger, positive word-of-mouth, repurchase intention and revenge. Empathy has a significant and positive effect on positive word-of-mouth. Anger has significant and positive effects on revenge and avoidance. Empathy is a mediator between perceived justice and positive word-of-mouth. Blame attribution and service failure severity are the moderators in the relationship between perceived justice and empathy/anger.Research limitations/implicationsConsumers might have experienced the scenarios described in the questionnaire and their responses might be based on recall of their previous dining experiences in other restaurants, thereby resulting in a time lapse problem and affecting the conclusions of this study.Practical implicationsIt is not adequate to gain consumers’ choices just demonstrate favorable customer perceived justice and empathy in today’s industrial highly competitiveness because blame attribution and perception of service failure severity result in different positive and negative emotions and behavioral intentions. Therefore, food and beverage industry must have a various recovery approaches to recover service failure and create a more appealing relationship with consumers.Originality/valueThis study investigates the relationships among perceived justice, emotions and behavioral intentions which are seldom discussed in the past studies. In addition, this study investigates the mediating effect of empathy in the relationship between perceived justice and positive word-of-mouth. The results of this study indicate that blame attribution and service failure severity are the moderators between perceived justice and emotions (empathy/anger). The mediator of empathy and the moderators of blame attribution and service failure severity can enhance the research gap in the context of service recovery for the tri-component attitude model.

Goal-Directed, Spontaneous, and Stimulus-Independent Thoughts and Mindwandering in a Competitive Context

The aim of this study was to analyze the functions of goal-directed thoughts and the content of spontaneous and stimulus-independent thoughts and mindwandering in a competitive setting and to explore links between different types of thoughts. Therefore, 17 young sport science students competed in a card-sorting task, while their recorded thoughts were collected between trials. Afterwards, the participants classified their own transcripts into different types of thoughts. The results indicated that goal-directed thinking serves a variety of functions, that spontaneous thought content might reflect a series of psychological states and processes relevant for performance, and that the content of mindwandering was idiosyncratic. Moreover, goal-directed thinking increased during competition, whereas mindwandering diminished. Lastly, mindwandering was rarely connected to other types of thinking, whereas the most recurrent connection between thoughts was found between goal-directed and spontaneous thinking.

Mind wandering and the attention network system

Attention and mind wandering are often seen as anticorrelated. However, both attention and mind wandering are multi-component processes, and their relationship may be more complex than previously thought. In this study, we tested the interference of different types of thoughts as measured by a Thought Identification Task - TIT (on task thoughts, task related interference thoughts, external distractions, stimulus independent and task unrelated thoughts) on different components of the attention network system - ANT (alerting, orienting, executive). Results show that, during the ANT, individuals were predominantly involved in task related interference thoughts which, along with external distractors, significantly impaired their performance accuracy. However, mind wandering (i.e., stimulus independent and task unrelated thoughts) did not significantly interfere with accuracy in the ANT. No significant relationship was found between type of thoughts and alerting, orienting, or executive effects in the ANT. While task related interference thoughts and external distractions seemed to impair performance on the attention task, mind wandering was still compatible with satisfactory performance in the ANT. The present results confirmed the importance of differentiating type of “out of task” thoughts in studying the relationship between though distractors and attention.

Individual variation in intentionality in the mind-wandering state is reflected in the integration of the default-mode, fronto-parietal, and limbic networks

Mind-wandering has a controversial relationship with cognitive control. Existing psychological evidence supports the hypothesis that episodes of mind-wandering reflect a failure to constrain thinking to task-relevant material, as well the apparently alternative view that control can facilitate the expression of self-generated mental content. We assessed whether this apparent contradiction arises because of a failure to consider differences in the types of thoughts that occur during mind-wandering, and in particular, the associated level of intentionality. Using multi-modal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis, we examined the cortical organisation that underlies inter-individual differences in descriptions of the spontaneous or deliberate nature of mind-wandering. Cortical thickness, as well as functional connectivity analyses, implicated regions relevant to cognitive control and regions of the default-mode network for individuals who reported high rates of deliberate mind-wandering. In contrast, higher reports of spontaneous mind-wandering were associated with cortical thinning in parietal and posterior temporal regions in the left hemisphere (which are important in the control of cognition and attention) as well as heightened connectivity between the intraparietal sulcus and a region that spanned limbic and default-mode regions in the ventral inferior frontal gyrus. Finally, we observed a dissociation in the thickness of the retrosplenial cortex/lingual gyrus, with higher reports of spontaneous mind-wandering being associated with thickening in the left hemisphere, and higher repots of deliberate mind-wandering with thinning in the right hemisphere. These results suggest that the intentionality of the mind-wandering state depends on integration between the control and default-mode networks, with more deliberation being associated with greater integration between these systems. We conclude that one reason why mind-wandering has a controversial relationship with control is because it depends on whether the thoughts emerge in a deliberate or spontaneous fashion.

Increasing Cognitive Response Sensitivity

Traditional cognitive response elicitation procedures may not be sensitive enough to elicit the stylized and subtle thoughts that are generated during exposure to certain types of ads. When these types of thoughts are the focus of a researcher’s work, it is critical that he or she develop a procedure that has the sensitivity to elicit them without being reactive. A laboratory study examines two different procedures for eliciting cognitive responses: pre-exposure elicitation exercises, and directed post-exposure instructions. The results suggest that each procedure raises measurement sensitivity, but that there is no advantage in combining them. General guidelines are then presented for developing stylized cognitive response elicitation procedures.

Thinking pink? Consumer reactions to pink ribbons and vague messages in advertising

Many brands partner with causes in their advertising campaigns. Consumers appreciate that the brands they purchase participate in activities that contribute to a society’s well-being. This study uses copy-testing techniques to evaluate the number and types of thoughts and brand attitudes in the presence and absence of cause-related messages. Individuals saw an ad for one of two products. None of the ads stated the brand’s financial support to the cause, which is representative of many messages today. People viewing the Dansko ads with the pink ribbon generated significantly fewer thoughts than those viewing the ad without the pink ribbon. For the Fitbit ads, more thoughts were generated for the ad with the pink ribbon than the ad without the pink ribbon. The Fitbit ad with the pink ribbon and support message generated fewer positive and negative thoughts but more neutral thoughts that questioned the brand/cause relationship. Attitudes toward the brand did not vary based on the presence or absence of the pink ribbon. People who saw ads with the pink ribbon displayed more positive attitudes toward the brands’ commitment to society and misestimated the brands’ contributions to the cause.

Unwanted intrusive thoughts: Cultural, contextual, covariational, and characterological determinants of diversity

Cognitive behavioral theories trace the origins of clinical obsessions to common unwanted intrusive thoughts, images or impulses that are universally experienced in the general population. It is the erroneous interpretation of the intrusion as a personally significant threat that must be diminished or neutralized that result in the vicious escalation into a clinical obsession. This paper reviews four critical determinants of individuals׳ diverse experience of unwanted intrusive thoughts (UITs). First we consider the role that culture may play in the types of thoughts that become intrusive, repetitive and persistent. Next the role of context is considered and the differences found between UITs and obsessions that are externally precipitated versus those that are more autonomous. A third section considers the role of current clinical state and whether there is a specific relation between certain types of intrusions and obsessional states in particular. The final section examines the role of personality, enduring dysfunctional beliefs and self-view discrepancies as potential vulnerability factors for UITs and obsessions. The paper concludes with a summary of current status and future directions for research on UITs.

Cognitive Responses in Advice Planning

This study reports a cognitive-response-based analysis of advice planning. Through an examination of full-time employees’ thought generation pattern when they plan to offer suggestions to their supervisor (Study I), this study identifies five distinct types of thoughts involved in advice planning and provides evidence of the association between thoughts (e.g., assessment, goal-oriented, and caution) and message qualities. These results are replicated in Study II when the same data collection procedure is used to examine advice planning in a friendship context. While advice message qualities are determined to a certain extent by advice givers’ thought content, results from Studies I and II also suggest that such a process is further moderated by people’s cognitive elaboration. That is, heightened degree of effortful thinking in deciding how to give advice, as compared with low effortful thinking, results in a greater number of caution thoughts and advice messages that contain a larger number and more diverse set of reasons.