Shaker Type Research Articles

OctoShaker: A versatile robotic biomechanical agitator for cellular and organoid research.

Mechanical forces have increasingly beenrecognized as a key regulator in the fate of cellular development and functionality. Different mechanical transduction methods, such as substrate stiffness and magnetic bead vibration, have been experimented with to understand the interaction between the biophysical cues and cellular outcome. In the exploration and utilization of the intrinsic cellular mechanism, bio-shakers, traditionally invented for stirring liquid, have garnered more interest as a tool to provide precise mechanical stimuli to aid in this study. Nonetheless, despite the usefulness of current bio-shaking technology, each type of shaker often offers a single mode of motion, insufficient for generating complex force dynamics needed to resemble the actual physical condition that occurs inside living organisms. In this study, we present OctoShaker, a robotic instrument capable of creating a multitude of motions that could be sequenced or programmed to mimic sophisticated hemodynamics in vivo. We demonstrated the programmed motion of circular convection and investigated its influence on micro-particle distribution in 96-well culture microplates. Biological samples, including HeLa cells and organoids, were tested, and unique resultant patterns were observed. We anticipate the open-source dissemination of OctoShaker in diverse biological applications, encompassing biomechanical studies for cellular and organoid research, as well as other disciplines that demand dynamic mechanical force generation.

A Meta-Analysis Study to Infer Voltage-Gated K+ Channels Prognostic Value in Different Cancer Types

Potassium channels are often highly expressed in cancer cells with respect to healthy ones, as they provide proliferative advantages through modulating membrane potential, calcium homeostasis, and various signaling pathways. Among potassium channels, Shaker type voltage-gated Kv channels are emerging as promising pharmacological targets in oncology. Here, we queried publicly available cancer patient databases to highlight if a correlation exists between Kv channel expression and survival rate in five different cancer types. By multiple gene comparison analysis, we found a predominant expression of KCNA2, KCNA3, and KCNA5 with respect to the other KCNA genes in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM), uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC), stomach adenocarcinoma (STAD), lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), and lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC). This analysis highlighted a prognostic role of KCNA3 and KCNA5 in SKCM, LUAD, LUSC, and STAD, respectively. Interestingly, KCNA3 was associated with a positive prognosis in SKCM and LUAD but not in LUSC. Results obtained by the analysis of KCNA3-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs); tumor immune cell infiltration highlighted differences that may account for such differential prognosis. A meta-analysis study was conducted to investigate the role of KCNA channels in cancer using cancer patients' datasets. Our study underlines a promising correlation between Kv channel expression in tumor cells, in infiltrating immune cells, and survival rate.

Evaluation of D-glucose Hydrogenation Catalysts Suability in Different Reactor Systems

he samples of ruthenium impregnated in hypercrosslinked polystyrene and activated carbon were tested in D-glucose hydrogenation using butch reactor, shaker type reactor and fix bed reactor system to evaluate catalysts long term stability. Catalysts were characterized by nitrogen physisorption, X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy, hydrogen chemisorption, X-Ray fluorescence analysis. Physicochemical changes of the studied catalysts are shown during catalysts stability investigation. A strong influence of the reactor type on catalysts stability in D-glucose hydrogenation is discussed.

Molecular insights into the role of plant transporters in salt stress response.

Salt stress disturbs the cellular osmotic and ionic balance, which then creates a negative impact on plant growth and development. The Na+ and Cl- ions can enter into plant cells through various membrane transporters, including specific and non-specific Na+ , K+ , and Ca2+ transporters. Therefore, it is important to understand Na+ and K+ transport mechanisms in plants along with the isolation of genes, their characterization, the structural features, and their post-translation regulation under salt stress. This review summarizes the molecular insights of plant ion transporters, including non-selective cation transporters, cyclic nucleotide-gated cation transporters, glutamate-like receptors, membrane intrinsic proteins, cation proton antiporters, and sodium proton antiporter families. Further, we discussed the K+ transporter families such as high-affinity K+ transporters, HAK/KUP/KT transporters, shaker type K+ transporters, and K+ efflux antiporters. Besides the ion transport process, we have shed light on available literature on epigenetic regulation of transport processes under salt stress. Recent advancements of salt stress sensing mechanisms and various salt sensors within signaling transduction pathways are discussed. Further, we have compiled salt-stress signaling pathways, and their crosstalk with phytohormones.

Functional role of endogenous Kv1.4 in experimental demyelination

During neuroinflammation, the shaker type potassium channel Kv1.4 is re-expressed in oligodendrocytes (Ol), but not immune cells. Here, we analyze the role of endogenous Kv1.4 in two demyelinating animal models of multiple sclerosis. While Kv1.4 deficiency in primary murine Ol led to a decreased proliferation rate in vitro, it did not exert an effect on Ol proliferation or on the extent of de- or remyelination in the cuprizone model in vivo. However, in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, Kv1.4−/− mice exhibited a milder disease course and reduced Th1 responses. These data argue for an indirect effect of Kv1.4 on immune cells, possibly via glial cells.

Preparation and Dielectric Properties of K1/2Na1/2NbO3 Ceramics Obtained from Mechanically Activated Powders.

Alkaline based materials have been considered as a replacement for environmentally harmful Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PZT) electro-ceramics. In this paper, the K1/2Na1/2NbO3 (KNN) ceramics were prepared in a three stage process: first Nb2O5, Na2CO3, and K2CO3 were milled in a high energy mill (shaker type) for different periods, between 25 h and 100 h, consecutively a solid state reaction was carried out at 550 °C. Finally, the uniaxially pressed samples were sintered at 1000 °C. The reaction temperature is lower for mechanically activated powders than in the case of the conventional solid-state method. The ceramic samples, prepared from the mechanically activated powders, were investigated by dielectric spectroscopy. The influence of the duration of the mechanical activation on the properties of the ceramic materials, e.g., ceramic microstructures, phase transition temperatures, character of the temperature dependences of dielectric permittivity, are discussed.

The Shaker Type Potassium Channel, GORK, Regulates Abscisic Acid Signaling in Arabidopsis.

Evolution of adaptive mechanisms to abiotic stress is essential for plant growth and development. Plants adapt to stress conditions by activating the abscisic acid (ABA) signaling pathway. It has been suggested that the ABA receptor, clade A protein phosphatase, SnRK2 type kinase, and SLAC1 anion channel are important components of the ABA signaling pathway. In this study, we report that the shaker type potassium (K+) channel, GORK, modulates plant responses to ABA and abiotic stresses. Our results indicate that the full length of PP2CA is needed to interact with the GORK C-terminal region. We identified a loss of function allele in gork that displayed ABA-hyposensitive phenotype. gork and pp2ca mutants showed opposite responses to ABA in seed germination and seedling growth. Additionally, gork mutant was tolerant to the NaCl and mannitol treatments, whereas pp2ca mutant was sensitive to the NaCl and mannitol treatments. Thus, our results indicate that GORK enhances the sensitivity to ABA and negatively regulates the mechanisms involved in high salinity and osmotic stresses via PP2CA-mediated signals.

Impedance studies of K0.5Na0.5NbO3 ceramics prepared from mechanochemically activated powders

Recently worldwide environmental considerations demand the elimination of lead-based materials from all consumer items. Potassium sodium niobate solid solution seems to be one of the most promising candidate to replace the PZT-based ceramics in piezoelectric devices. In this paper the K1/2Na1/2NbO3 ceramics have been obtained from mechanochemically activated powders containing the stoichiometric ratio of niobium oxide, potassium and sodium carbonates. The activation process occurred in a high energy mill (shaker type), for different periods between 25 h and 100 h. The sintered ceramic samples, prepared from mechanochemically activated powders, have been investigated by XRD, SEM and impedance studies in order to determine the influence of mechanochemical process on the final ceramic properties. The ceramic properties have showed a strong correlation with the milling duration. Based on the performed investigations it is possible to distinguish between the material response related to the grains and the grain boundaries. The resistance of grains and grain boundaries increases with the high energy milling time. The similar trend has been recorded in case of capacitance. Moreover, the anomaly, related to the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition, is visible on both temperature dependencies of grains and grain boundaries capacitances.

CHARACTERIZATION OF BAMBOO TUTUL CHARCOAL PARTICLE PRODUCED BY HIGH ENERGY BALL MILLING SHAKER TYPE

The objective of this study is to characterize bamboo tutul charcoal particles produced by High Energy Ball Milling (HBEM) shaker type. The HEBM process was conducted in the stainless steel vials for 2 million cycles at 900 motor RPM. The ball milling diameter was 1/4 inch made from steel. Therefore, perhaps the final particle size will be determined by empty space of the vial for the movement of the balls. In this study, the empty space is varied for 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, and 1/5 of vial volume. Particle Size Analyzer (PSA) is used to have the particle sizes and SEM-EDX is used to have surface morphology of the particle. The average final particle sizes are 547.8 nm, 522.9 nm, 422.7 nm, and 739.4 nm for 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, and 1/5 empty space of vial respectively. The surface morphologies of the particles are determined by fracture mechanism as they can be seen on the SEM results. Based on the results, it can be said that there is no correlation between the particle size and the empty space of the vial. As long as there is space for movement of the milling balls, the collision occurs and the reduction of the particle also happens.

Further studies of ion channels in the electroreceptor of the skate through deep sequencing, cloning and cross species comparisons

Our comparative studies seek to understand the structure and function of ion channels in cartilaginous fish that can detect very low voltage gradients in seawater. The principal channels of the electroreceptor include a calcium activated K channel whose α subunit is Kcnma1, and a voltage-dependent calcium channel, Cacna1d. It has also been suggested based on physiological and pharmacological evidence that a voltage-gated K channel is present in the basal membranes of the receptor cells which modulates synaptic transmitter release. Large conductance calcium-activated K channels (BK) are comprised of four α subunits, encoded by Kcnma1 and modulatory β subunits of the Kcnmb class. We recently cloned and published the skate Kcnma1 gene and most of Kcnmb4 using purified mRNA of homogenized electroreceptors. Bellono et al. have recently performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) on purified mRNA from skate electroreceptors and found several ion channels including Kcnma1. We searched the Bellono et al. RNA-seq repository for additional channels and subunits. Our most significant findings are the presence of two Shaker type voltage dependent K channel sequences which are grouped together as isoforms in the data repository. The larger of these is a skate ortholog of the voltage dependent fast potassium channel Kv1.1, which is expressed at appreciable levels. The second ortholog is similar to Kv1.5 but has fewer N-terminal amino acids than other species. The sequence for Kv1.5 in the skate is very strongly aligned with the recently reported sequence for potassium channels in the electroreceptors of the cat shark, S. retifer, which also modulate synaptic transmission. The latter channel was designated as Kv1.3 in the initial report, but we suggest that these channels are actually orthologs of each other, and that Kv1.5 is the prevailing designation. We also found a beta subunit sequence (Kcnab2) which may co-assemble with one or both of the voltage gated channels. The new channels and subunits were verified by RT-PCR and the Kv1.1 sequence was confirmed by cloning. We also searched the RNA-seq repository for accessory subunits of Kcnma1, and found a computer-generated assembly that contained a complete sequence of its β subunit, Kcnmb2. Skate Kcnmb2 has a total of 279 amino acids, with 51 novel amino acids at the N-terminus which may play a specific physiological role. This sequence was confirmed by PCR and cloning. However, skate Kcnmb2 is expressed at low levels in the electroreceptor compared to Kcnma1 and skate Kcnmb1 is absent. The evolutionary origin of the newly described K channels and their subunits was studied by alignments with mammalian sequences, including human, and also those in related fish: the whale shark (R. typus), the ghost shark (C.milii), and (S. retifer). There are also orthologous K channels of the lamprey, which has electroreceptors. Tree building and bootstrap programs were used to confirm phylogenetic inferences. Further research should focus on the subcellular locations of these channels, their gating behavior, and the effects of accessory subunits on gating.

Tantalum-45S5Bioglass composite foams prepared in thermal dealloying process

This paper presents a promising method of tantalum – bioglass porous composites preparation by thermal dealloying. The first step of this study was the Ta-Bioglass-Mg nanopowder preparation using the mechanical alloying process in a Spex shaker type mill. The next step was the formation of the green compacts by cold pressing and then sintering and dealloying of magnesium. During the dealloying process, the magnesium diffuses from the middle to the surface of the sample, leaving open spaces surrounded by the composite scaffold. The porosity, pores morphology, structure, phase and chemical composition as well as cytotoxic activity have been investigated. The biocompatible Ta-2.5 wt% 45S5 Bioglass foam composites, of high porosity and wide pore size distribution have successfully been prepared as promising candidates for hard tissue implant applications.

The effect of the ball size on the product characteristics of shaker HEM to produce nano particle from bamboo charcoal

The aim of this research is to study the effect of the ball size on characteristics of the product of high energy milling (HEM) of shaker type to produce nano particle from bamboo charcoal. A new shaker mechanism is developed. The characteristics of the particle are represented by particle size, surface morphology, and the substances presence in the product. Particle size analyzer (PSA) is conducted to have the particle sizes, whereas SEM and EDX are used to have surface morphology and substances presence in the products respectively. The mixtures of 11 gr of bamboo charcoal powder of 200 mesh and about 299 gr of steel ball are placed in vials. The vial is from stainless steel cylinder with 1¼ inch diameter and 120 mm length. The stroke of the shaker is 54 mm at 233 rpm. The number of cycle is 4 million cycles. The steel ball sizes are 1/8, 5/32, 3/16 and 1/4 inch. PSA results show that there is no certain correlation between the steel ball size and particle size. The final shape of the particles is determined by fracture mechanism. The highest substance presence in the result is C.

HRPU-2, a Homolog of Mammalian hnRNP U, Regulates Synaptic Transmission by Controlling the Expression of SLO-2 Potassium Channel in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Slo2 channels are large-conductance potassium channels abundantly expressed in the nervous system. However, it is unclear how their expression level in neurons is regulated. Here we report that HRPU-2, an RNA-binding protein homologous to mammalian heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein U (hnRNP U), plays an important role in regulating the expression of SLO-2 (a homolog of mammalian Slo2) in Caenorhabditis elegans Loss-of-function (lf) mutants of hrpu-2 were isolated in a genetic screen for suppressors of a sluggish phenotype caused by a hyperactive SLO-2. In hrpu-2(lf) mutants, SLO-2-mediated delayed outward currents in neurons are greatly decreased, and neuromuscular synaptic transmission is enhanced. These mutant phenotypes can be rescued by expressing wild-type HRPU-2 in neurons. HRPU-2 binds to slo-2 mRNA, and hrpu-2(lf) mutants show decreased SLO-2 protein expression. In contrast, hrpu-2(lf) does not alter the expression of either the BK channel SLO-1 or the Shaker type potassium channel SHK-1. hrpu-2(lf) mutants are indistinguishable from wild type in gross motor neuron morphology and locomotion behavior. Together, these observations suggest that HRPU-2 plays important roles in SLO-2 function by regulating SLO-2 protein expression, and that SLO-2 is likely among a restricted set of proteins regulated by HRPU-2. Mutations of human Slo2 channel and hnRNP U are strongly linked to epileptic disorders and intellectual disability. The findings of this study suggest a potential link between these two molecules in human patients.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein U (hnRNP U) belongs to a family of RNA-binding proteins that play important roles in controlling gene expression. Recent studies have established a strong link between mutations of hnRNP U and human epilepsies and intellectual disability. However, it is unclear how mutations of hnRNP U may cause such disorders. This study shows that mutations of HRPU-2, a worm homolog of mammalian hnRNP U, result in dysfunction of a Slo2 potassium channel, which is critical to neuronal function. Because mutations of Slo2 channels are also strongly associated with epileptic encephalopathies and intellectual disability in humans, the findings of this study point to a potential mechanism underlying neurological disorders caused by hnRNP U mutations.

Preparation and Properties of Ti-Y2O3 Composites for Implant Applications

AbstractThe paper presents the preparation of Ti-(1-30wt.%)Y2O3composites using the mechanical alloying process. Ti based materials are the best metallic biomaterials because of their excellent properties: biocompatibility, low Young moduli and high corrosion resistance. Pure Ti and Y2O3powders were alloyed under argon atmosphere in shaker type mill (Spex 8000) followed by pressing and sintering.The ultra-low grain size structure improves the mechanical properties and hardness of the new materials in comparison to microcrystalline Ti-based sinters. However, because of the porosity of approx. 20-30%, a decrease in the Young modulus is observed. Moreover, the new composites show good tendency towards covering by Ca-P compounds during soaking in SBF.

Structure and hydrogen storage properties of mechanically alloyed Ti-V alloys

Ti-V alloys are potential candidates for hydrogen storage materials. In this study, mechanical alloying under an argon atmosphere was used to produce Ti2−xVx nanocrystalline alloys (x = 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5). Shaker type ball mill was used. An objective of the present study was to investigate an influence of chemical composition and method of production on hydrogenation and dehydrogenation properties of Ti-V alloys. X-ray diffraction analyses revealed formation of BCC solid solution after 14 h of milling. It is the first time of obtaining this phase directly from mechanical alloying method. HRTEM images confirmed formation of nanocrystalline materials. Synthesized materials were studied by a conventional Sievert's type apparatus at 303 K. It was observed that the maximum hydrogen storage capacity is increased with increased Ti content in the alloy. Ti1.5V0.5 alloy showed high hydrogen storage capacity at room temperature, which reached about 3.67 wt.%. Simultaneously, it was noticed that Ti-rich alloys form more stable hydride phases than V-rich alloys. Observed properties resulted mainly from structure of studied materials.

An Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Vibrational Response of a Flanged Cylinder Structure

The paper presents a combined experimental and numerical investigation of the vibrational response of a flanged cylinder structure due to a time-harmonic point excitation. The principle focus of this study was to (1) determine the relative sensitivity of the vibrational response of the cylinder due to variations in the experimental configuration (such as using different vibrational sources, excitation points or complicating structural configurations), and (2) ascertain the level of detail required in the numerical models to accurately replicate the experimental results. Overall, good agreement was achieved between the measured and modelled mode shapes/frequencies up to approximately 1500 Hz, while the experimental results were shown to be largely insensitive to the excitation point or type of mechanical shaker employed. Comparative identification of the measured and modelled cylinder mode shapes allowed for other measured frequency response peaks which did not exhibit discernible modal patterns to be identified from the FEM analysis as either bending modes or internal plate modes for the structure. Finally, it was observed that the contact condition used to model the bolted plates in the structure had a significant effect on the predicted plate modal frequencies, while small amounts of mass loading in the experimental configuration were predicted to cause significant frequency shifts for certain modes.

Factors Affecting Mehlich III Soil Test Methodology for Extractable P

ABSTRACTAgronomic and environmental testing laboratories in Texas and elsewhere have adopted Mehlich III (M3) as their official soil test phosphorus (P) methodology. However, M3-P data could be skewed due to non-homogenous soil samples or failure to follow standard protocol which could influence recommendations or restrictions. Twelve agricultural soils with a wide range of properties were collected from across Texas. Exhaustive efforts via multiple methods were made to prepare homogeneous representative soil samples. The standard M3 protocol selected was a 2 g weighed soil sample placed in a 148 ml disposable plastic cup, using a 1:10 soil:M3 solution ratio, shaken on a 200 rpm orbital shaker with a 2.5 cm throw for exactly 5 min, and filtered through Whatman No. 2 filter paper. The standard protocol was compared with nine different protocol variations with variables including soil weighing versus scooping, scooping repeatability of different technicians, soil sample weight, shaking type, speed and time, different filter papers, and varying soil:extractant ratios. Extent of soil pulverization on M3-P results was also evaluated. Tests were performed in four replications for all protocols to assess effects on M3-extractable soil P. Percent recovery of soil during grinding had no effect on M3-extractable P. Little difference in M3-extractable P was observed between scooping and weighing of 2 g soil samples. Shaker type had no effect on extractable P in soils with low clay contents, however, increasing shaking speed and using an orbital shaker resulted in higher extractable P, especially in clayey soils. Both Whatman No. 1 and 2 filter papers were found suitable for M3-P analyses. Different soil:extractant ratios resulted in a highly significant influence on the amount of M3-P extracted. However, when ratios were maintained between 1:9 and 1:11, few differences in extractable P were observed. Using sample weights below 3 g did not significantly alter precision or accuracy of results. However, technician variation in scooping of 2 or 5 g soil samples resulted in significant differences in M3-P.

Dominant KCNA2 mutation causes episodic ataxia and pharmacoresponsive epilepsy.

To identify the genetic basis of a family segregating episodic ataxia, infantile seizures, and heterogeneous epilepsies and to study the phenotypic spectrum of KCNA2 mutations. A family with 7 affected individuals over 3 generations underwent detailed phenotyping. Whole genome sequencing was performed on a mildly affected grandmother and her grandson with epileptic encephalopathy (EE). Segregating variants were filtered and prioritized based on functional annotations. The effects of the mutation on channel function were analyzed in vitro by voltage clamp assay and in silico by molecular modeling. KCNA2 was sequenced in 35 probands with heterogeneous phenotypes. The 7 family members had episodic ataxia (5), self-limited infantile seizures (5), evolving to genetic generalized epilepsy (4), focal seizures (2), and EE (1). They had a segregating novel mutation in the shaker type voltage-gated potassium channel KCNA2 (CCDS_827.1: c.765_773del; p.255_257del). A rare missense SCN2A (rs200884216) variant was also found in 2 affected siblings and their unaffected mother. The p.255_257del mutation caused dominant negative loss of channel function. Molecular modeling predicted repositioning of critical arginine residues in the voltage-sensing domain. KCNA2 sequencing revealed 1 de novo mutation (CCDS_827.1: c.890G>A; p.Arg297Gln) in a girl with EE, ataxia, and tremor. A KCNA2 mutation caused dominantly inherited episodic ataxia, mild infantile-onset seizures, and later generalized and focal epilepsies in the setting of normal intellect. This observation expands the KCNA2 phenotypic spectrum from EE often associated with chronic ataxia, reflecting the marked variation in severity observed in many ion channel disorders.

Reducing the Salt Added to Takeaway Food: Within-Subjects Comparison of Salt Delivered by Five and 17 Holed Salt Shakers in Controlled Conditions.

ObjectivesTo determine if the amount of salt delivered by standard salt shakers commonly used in English independent takeaways varies between those with five and 17 holes; and to determine if any differences are robust to variations in: the amount of salt in the shaker, the length of time spent shaking, and the person serving.DesignFour laboratory experiments comparing the amount of salt delivered by shakers. Independent variables considered were: type of shaker used (five or 17 holes), amount of salt in the shaker before shaking commences (shaker full, half full or nearly empty), time spent shaking (3s, 5s or 10s), and individual serving.SettingControlled, laboratory, conditions.ParticipantsA quota-based convenience sample of 10 participants (five women) aged 18–59 years.Main Outcome MeasuresAmount of salt delivered by salt shakers.ResultsAcross all trials, the 17 holed shaker delivered a mean (SD) of 7.86g (4.54) per trial, whilst the five holed shaker delivered 2.65g (1.22). The five holed shaker delivered a mean of 33.7% of the salt of the 17 holed shaker. There was a significant difference in salt delivered between the five and 17 holed salt shakers when time spent shaking, amount of salt in the shaker and participant were all kept constant (p<0.001). This difference was robust to variations in the starting weight of shakers, time spent shaking and participant shaking (ps</ = 0.001).ConclusionsFive holed salt shakers have the potential to reduce the salt content of takeaway food, and particularly food from Fish & Chip shops, where these shakers are particularly used. Further research will be required to determine the effects of this intervention on customers’ salt intake with takeaway food and on total dietary salt intake.

Comparison of sodium content of meals served by independent takeaways using standard versus reduced holed salt shakers: cross-sectional study.

BackgroundTakeaway food has a relatively poor nutritional profile. Providing takeaway outlets with reduced-holed salt shakers is one method thought to reduce salt use in takeaways, but effects have not been formally tested. We aimed to determine if there was a difference in sodium content of standard fish and chip meals served by Fish & Chip Shops that use standard (17 holes) versus reduced-holed (5 holes) salt shakers, taking advantage of natural variations in salt shakers used.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study of all Fish & Chip Shops in two local government areas (n = 65), where servers added salt to meals as standard practice, and salt shaker used could be identified (n = 61). Standard fish and chip meals were purchased from each shop by incognito researchers and the purchase price and type of salt shaker used noted. Sodium content of full meals and their component parts (fish, chips, and fish batter) was determined using flame photometry. Differences in absolute and relative sodium content of meals and component parts between shops using reduced-holed versus standard salt-shakers were compared using linear regression before and after adjustment for purchase price and area.ResultsReduced-holed salt shakers were used in 29 of 61 (47.5 %) included shops. There was no difference in absolute sodium content of meals purchased from shops using standard versus reduced-holed shakers (mean = 1147 mg [equivalent to 2.9 g salt]; SD = 424 mg; p > 0.05). Relative sodium content was significantly lower in meals from shops using reduced-holed (mean = 142.5 mg/100 g [equivalent to 0.4 g salt/100 g]; SD = 39.0 mg/100 g) versus standard shakers (mean = 182.0 mg/100 g; [equivalent to 0.5 g salt/100 g]; SD = 68.3 mg/100 g; p = 0.008). This was driven by differences in the sodium content of chips and was extinguished by adjustment for purchase price and area. Price was inversely associated with relative sodium content (p < 0.05).ConclusionsUsing reduced-holed salt shakers in Fish & Chip Shops is associated with lower relative sodium content of fish and chip meals. This is driven by differences in sodium content of chips, making our results relevant to the wide range of takeaways serving chips. Shops serving higher priced meals, which may reflect a more affluent customer base, may be more likely to use reduced-holed shakers.