Types Of Rehearsal Research Articles

Improving the Orchestration Resilience of a Smart Integrated Tourism Destination – A Case Study in the Swiss Alps

Most tourism destinations in Switzerland are fragmented. The result is that actors along the customer’s journey intervene in a disordered way. To create a smart integrated tourism destination, we posited that collaboration between these different actors should be trained upstream, in the design process. However, this training requires a laboratory independent of day-to-day business activity and allowing a type of rehearsal by the local stakeholders in the tourism industry. Through a case study based on SWISSPEAK Resorts (SPR), this research article illustrates that merely creating a digital marketplace for tourism is not enough to ensure a truly smart, integrated customer experience. Based on consecutive pre-experiments, we concluded that digital trust was of primary importance for the resilience of a smart integrated tourism destination and that orchestrating and rehearsing it was essential.

Rehearsal of tactile working memory: Premotor cortex recruits two dissociable neuronal content representations.

Recent working memory (WM) research has focused on identifying brain regions that retain different types of mental content. Only few neuroimaging studies have explored the mechanism of attention‐based refreshing, which is a type of rehearsal and is thought to implement the dynamic components of WM allowing for update of WM contents. Here, we took advantage of the distinct coding properties of the superior parietal lobe (SPL), which retains spatial layout information, and the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), which retains frequency information of vibrotactile stimuli during tactile WM. In an fMRI delayed match‐to‐sample task, participants had to internally rehearse sequences of spatial layouts or vibratory frequencies. Our results replicate the dissociation of SPL and IFG for the retention of layout and frequency information in terms of activation differences between conditions. Additionally, we found strong premotor cortex (PMC) activation during rehearsal of either stimulus type. To explore interactions between these regions we used dynamic causal modeling and found that activation within the network was best explained by a model that allows the PMC to drive activity in the SPL and IFG during rehearsal. This effect was content‐specific, meaning that the PMC showed stronger influence on the SPL during pattern rehearsal and stronger influence on the IFG during frequency rehearsal. In line with previously established PMC contributions to sequence processing, our results suggest that it acts as a content‐independent area that flexibly recruits content‐specific regions to bring a WM item into the focus of attention during the rehearsal of tactile stimulus sequences.

GF #510, eAlerts, Elsevier, 1 page, B/W

It has been widely suggested, but rarely demonstrated, that virtual environments (VEs) are effective training media. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate how well a VE model of a complex office building trained individuals to navigate in the actual building. Sixty participants studied route directions and landmark photographs, then rehearsed the route using either the VE model, the actual building, or verbal directions and photographs. The VE model was presented in real time via a head-tracked display. Half of the participants in each rehearsal group also studied route maps. Everyone's route knowledge was then measured in the actual building. Building configuration knowledge was also measured. VE rehearsal produced more route knowledge than verbal rehearsal, but less than with rehearsal in the actual building. Type of rehearsal had no effect on configuration knowledge. Map study influenced neither route nor configuration knowledge. These results suggest that VEs that adequately represent real world complexity can be effective training media for learning complex routes in buildings, and should be considered whenever the real world site is unavailable for training.

Short-term memory loss over time without retroactive stimulus interference

A key question in cognitive psychology is whether information in short-term memory is lost as a function of time. Lewandowsky, Duncan, and Brown (2004) argued against that memory loss because forgetting in serial recall occurred to the same extent across serial positions regardless of the rate of recall. However, we believe Lewandowsky et al. (2004) only prevented one of two types of rehearsal; they did not prevent nonarticulatory rehearsal via attention. To prevent articulatory and nonarticulatory rehearsal without introducing interference, we presented unevenly timed stimuli for serial recall and, on some trials, required that the timing of stimuli be reproduced in the response. In those trials only, evidence of memory loss over time emerged. Further research is needed to identify whether this memory loss is decay or lost distinctiveness.

On the relationship between recognition speed and accuracy for words rehearsed via rote versus elaborative rehearsal.

Tacit within both lay and cognitive conceptualizations of learning is the notion that those conditions of learning that foster "good" retention do so by increasing both the probability and the speed of access to the relevant information. In 3 experiments, time pressure during recognition is shown to decrease accessibility more for words learned via elaborative rehearsal than for words learned via rote rehearsal, despite the fact that elaborative rehearsal is a more efficacious learning strategy as measured by the probability of access. In Experiment 1, participants learned each word using both types of rehearsal, and the results show that access to the products of elaborative rehearsal is more compromised by time pressure than is access to the products of rote rehearsal. The results of Experiment 2, in which each word was learned via either pure rote or pure elaborative rehearsal, exhibit the same pattern. Experiment 3, in which the authors used the response-signal procedure, provides evidence that this difference in accessibility owes not to differences in the rate of access to the 2 types of traces, but rather to the higher asymptotic level of stored information for words learned via elaborative rehearsal.

Virtual spaces and real world places: transfer of route knowledge

It has been widely suggested, but rarely demonstrated, that virtual environments (VEs) are effective training media. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate how well a VE model of a complex office building trained individuals to navigate in the actual building. Sixty participants studied route directions and landmark photographs, then rehearsed the route using either the VE model, the actual building, or verbal directions and photographs. The VE model was presented in real time via a head-tracked display. Half of the participants in each rehearsal group also studied route maps. Everyone's route knowledge was then measured in the actual building. Building configuration knowledge was also measured. VE rehearsal produced more route knowledge than verbal rehearsal, but less than with rehearsal in the actual building. Type of rehearsal had no effect on configuration knowledge. Map study influenced neither route nor configuration knowledge. These results suggest that VEs that adequately represent real world complexity can be effective training media for learning complex routes in buildings, and should be considered whenever the real world site is unavailable for training.

Rehearsal strategies, test expectancy, and memory monitoring in free recall.

Three experiments were carried out to determine (a) the effectiveness of associative rehearsal and rote repetition for long-term recall with and without expectation of a later recall test, and (b) the subjects' ability to assess their own future recall performance. The overall results showed that a test expectancy effect was not obtained when a voluntary selection in strategies was prohibited, but was found for subjects not instructed in the use of any particular strategy. It is also shown that the subjects could predict correctly that the items studied with associative rehearsal would be recalled more successfully at the final test than when they were studied with rote repetition. A superiority of associative rehearsal for prediction was not found when the subjects used only one type of rehearsal, but was found when they were not given the immediate test. The results suggest that the expectancy effect can be explained in terms of subjects' intentional shifts of strategies based on their metacognitive assessment of such strategies.

How Children Choose among Serial Recall Strategies

A theoretical and methodological approach originally developed to investigate preschoolers' arithmetic strategies was extended to the study of 5-8-year-olds' serial recall strategies. Immediately retrospective verbal reports, together with observation of overt behavior, indicated a number of parallels between strategy choices in the 2 areas. In serial recall, as in arithmetic, most children used multiple approaches. Even among the youngest children, the majority sometimes used the most effective strategy, repeated rehearsal. Changes in strategy choices were adaptive in the sense of children rehearsing more often when not rehearsing on the previous trial had led to incorrect recall. Developmental changes occurred in how often children rehearsed, in how accurately they executed each strategy, and in the type of rehearsal that they used most frequently. Only small changes were apparent, however, in whether the 5-8-year-olds rehearsed at all.

Activation in professional ballet dancers

The purpose of the study was to examine professional ballet dancers' psychophysiological activation in different types of rehearsal and performance. Electrical activity of the trapezius muscle (EMG), blood pressure, heart rate, and skin conductance level were measured. Self-estimated mental tension was evaluated, as was success in the performance. The effect of sex, age, professional experience, artistic status, role, and type of rehearsal and performance was studied. Principals had lower EMG at rest than soloists or corps de ballet dancers. The principals' psychophysiological activation during performance was increased more than that of soloists or corps de ballet dancers as compared to the values at rest. The type of performance had an effect on self-estimated mental tension and psychophysiological responses. During the last general rehearsals (with an audience) physiological activation was higher than on first nights or in other performances or rehearsals.

Rehearsal and preparation for speech in stutterers: a psychophysiological study.

ABSTRACTTwelve stutterers and twelve non‐stutterers each read out loud following three types of rehearsal: overt rehearsal of the material, silent rehearsal, or inappropriate overt rehearsal (counting backwards). Silent rehearsal impaired performance (fluency) compared to the other conditions. Heart rate measures (HR) and electro‐myography (EMG) did not differentiate stutterers from non‐stutterers, except that EMG immediately before speech was significantly elevated after silent rehearsal for stutterers. The data suggest that silent rehearsal may be accompanied by excessively high muscle tone, and impair rather than facilitate fluency.

Verbalization and children's self-regulated learning

This article discusses the idea that overt verbalization helps to develop children's self-regulated learning of cognitive skills. Verbalization can enhance children's attention to task-relevant features. As a type of rehearsal, verbalization may improve coding, storage, and retention of material, and thereby facilitate subsequent retrieval and use. Verbalization can help children maintain a positive task outlook and cope with difficulties. Because verbalization makes salient a systematic approach for improving learning and children's ability to apply it, verbalization also can raise self-efficacy (perceived capabilities). Research is summarized that assesses the effects on children's learning due to verbalizing information to be remembered, modeled actions, and strategies. Future research needs to explore maintenance and generalization of systematic approaches to learning, verbalization of task-specific and general statements, and uses of verbalization in classrooms.

Rehearsal and preparation for speech in stutterers: A psychophysiological study

Twelve stutterers and twelve non-stutterers each read out loud following three types of rehearsal: overt rehearsal of the material, silent rehearsal, or inappropriate overt rehearsal (counting backwards). Silent rehearsal impaired performance (fluency) compared to the other conditions. Heart rate measures (HR) and electro-myography (EMG) did not differentiate stutterers from non-stutterers, except that EMG immediately before speech was significantly elevated after silent rehearsal for stutterers. the data suggest that silent rehearsal may be accompanied by excessively high muscle tone, and impair rather than facilitate fluency.

Active and Passive Processing during Primary Rehearsal

Two incidental learning experiments examined the formation of interitem associations under task demands that encouraged different types of rehearsal in short-term memory. Subjects were assumed to engage in primary rehearsal when the task required them merely to keep information available in memory until the appearance of a decision word. Active primary rehearsal, on the other hand, required interactive processing of the stored material continuously throughout the rehearsal interval. The main question of interest asked whether active as opposed to passive rehearsal would typically lead to continued growth in interitem associative learning, even though no final memory test was anticipated. The results suggested that associative learning will not continue to develop as a simple by-product of attention, or temporal contiguity; rather, rehearsal will promote the formation of associations only while the subject continues to look for relations among co-rehearsed items. These data are discussed in terms of the distinction

Effects of repetition on short-term retention of order information.

Two experiments examined the effects of repetition on the short-term retention of order information. A partial report procedure was coupled with the distractor paradigm to vary which one of two 4-letter sequences was tested after a digit-filled retention interval. Repeatedly presenting the stimulus but not its testing did not increase recall, but recall did increase when both presentation and testing were repeated. Recall was also improved by precues that informed subjects in advance which sequence was to be recalled. The perturbation model of Estes (1972; Lee & Estes, 1981) was able to account for the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the results by making an explicit distinction between two types of rehearsal: the reactivation process, which corresponds to a passive, automatic rehearsal process; and an active, conscious rehearsal process that crystallizes the memory structure and makes perturbations less likely. Language: en

Effects of repetition on short-term retention of order information.

Two experiments examined the effects of repetition on the short-term retention of order information. A partial report procedure was coupled with the distractor paradigm to vary which one of two 4-letter sequences was tested after a digit-filled retention interval. Repeatedly presenting the stimulus but not its testing did not increase recall, but recall did increase when both presentation and testing were repeated. Recall was also improved by precues that informed subjects in advance which sequence was to be recalled. The perturbation model of Estes (1972; Lee & Estes, 1981) was able to account for the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the results by making an explicit distinction between two types of rehearsal: the reactivation process, which corresponds to a passive, automatic rehearsal process; and an active, conscious rehearsal process that crystallizes the memory structure and makes perturbations less likely.

The Effects of List Organization and Rehearsal Activity on Children's Free Recall

ORNSTEIN, PETER A.; NAUS, MARY J.; and MILLER, THOMAS D. The Effects of List Organization and Rehearsal Activity on Children's Free Recall. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1977, 48, 292-295. Previous work has shown that developmental changes in the activity of children's rehearsal, measured in terms of the number of different items rehearsed together, are related to corresponding changes in the recall of unrelated items. This work also suggests, however, that under conditions of very salient list structure rehearsal factors may be relatively unimportant. The present experiment further examined the joint effects of list organization and rehearsal strategy. In a free-recall task, sixth graders were given instructions to rehearse aloud either actively or passively and were exposed to 1 of 3 sets of materials which differed in terms of the presumed salience of the list organization: unrelated items, related items presented randomly, and related items blocked by category. Under both types of rehearsal, recall varied as a function of list organization. Further, differences between the 2 rehearsal strategies were observed most clearly with the unrelated items and the related items presented randomly, whereas there were minimal differences when related items were blocked.

The Effect of Overt Rehearsal on Motor Short-Term Memory

The effects of different types of rehearsal on the recall of a blind motor movement were explored. Immediate recall and delayed recall (covert rehearsal) were compared to recall after the overt rehearsal of either movement distance or end-location. Spontaneous decay was evident in a large increase in variable error (VE) for all rehearsal conditions even though the location cue was reliable. Massed distance rehearsals yielded less VE than spaced, and VE increased with successive rehearsals, providing further support for spontaneous decay. Constant error showed a central tendency effect and decreased in overshooting over time. Longer movements yielded more VE than shorter, and the increase in VE over time was greater for longer movements, suggesting that retention characteristics may differ as a function of movement length.

The interaction of encoding and rehearsal processes in the recall of repeated and nonrepeated items

Experiments were designed to clarify the influence of level of processing on the recall of once-presented items and to determine whether spacing effects for repeated items result from differential processing of the second presentation. In a modified Brown-Peterson paradigm, the lengths of distractor-filled spacing and retention intervals were varied, and subjects were cued to rehearse each presentation of five-word pentads in either a primary (rote) or secondary (elaborative) fashion. Type of rehearsal had large and systematic effects, but the pattern of spacing effects was inconsistent with that predicted by a processing interpretation. An alternative theory, in which type of processing is assumed to interact with encoding variability, seems consistent with the results.

A developmental study of pronouncing responses in the discrimination learning of words and pictures

Subjects at three age levels were administered picture pair or word pair discrimination lists. They pronounced or pointed as a method of choice, and they pronounced or pointed at the correct item (or remained silent) during rehearsal. The results indicated that with picture pairs, pronunciation facilitated learning as a method of choice and a type of rehearsal in nursery school Ss. For fifth grade and college Ss, there was no significant difference between pronouncing and pointing as a method of choice. However, spoken rehearsal was superior to control performance for fifth grade Ss. College Ss performed equally well in the control and pronouncing conditions, but pointing during rehearsal produced significantly more errors than pronouncing. Word pairs produced no significant pronunciation effects. These results were discussed within an internalization of speech perspective.

Rehearsal strategies and response cueing as determinants of organization in free recall

This paper reports an attempt to determine some of the processes underlying the phenomenon of subjective organization in free recall. Two processes believed relevant, rehearsal and response cueing, were hypothesized, and an experiment was performed to assess their effects. It was expected that the greater the opportunity for rehearsal of sequences of items (i.e., two or more), the greater would be the observed organization. The response-cueing hypothesis was that Ss, during recall, use those responses already made on the current test trial to cue or trigger recall of those items yet to be remembered. It was predicted that greater opportunity for response cueing would also lead to more organization. The results indicated that the type of rehearsal S is allowed to employ significantly affects the amount and pattern of organization. No evidence for response cueing was found.