Type Of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Research Articles

Alpha transcranial alternating current stimulation modulates auditory perception

BackgroundStudies using transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), a type of non-invasive brain stimulation, have demonstrated a relationship between the positive versus negative phase of both alpha and delta/theta oscillations with variable near-threshold auditory perception. These findings have not been directly compared before. Furthermore, as perception was better in the positive versus negative phase of two different frequencies, it is unclear whether changes in polarity (independent of a specific frequency) could also modulate auditory perception. ObjectiveWe investigated whether auditory perception depends on the phase of alpha, delta/theta, or polarity alone. MethodsWe stimulated participants with alpha, delta, and positive and negative direct current (DC) over temporal and central scalp sites while they identified near-threshold tones-in-noise. A Sham condition without tACS served as a control condition. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to assess differences in proportions of hits between conditions and polarities. Permutation-based circular-logistic regressions were used to assess the relationship between circular-predictors and single-trial behavioral responses. An exploratory analysis compared the full circular-logistic regression model to the intercept-only model. ResultsOverall, there were a greater proportion of hits in the Alpha condition in comparison to Delta, DC, and Sham conditions. We also found an interaction between polarity and stimulation condition; post-hoc analyses revealed a greater proportion of hits in the positive versus negative phase of Alpha tACS. In contrast, no significant differences were found in the Delta, DC, or Sham conditions. The permutation-based circular-logistic regressions did not reveal a statistically significant difference between the obtained RMS of the sine and cosine coefficients and the mean of the surrogate distribution for any of the conditions. However, our exploratory analysis revealed that circular-predictors explained the behavioral data significantly better than an intercept-only model for the Alpha condition, and not the other three conditions. ConclusionThese findings suggest that alpha tACS, and not delta nor polarity alone, modulates auditory perception.

TDCS over the left prefrontal Cortex improves mental flexibility and inhibition in geriatric inpatients with symptoms of depression or anxiety: A pilot randomized controlled trial

Patients with depression and/or anxiety are commonly seen in inpatient geriatric settings. Both disorders are associated with an increased risk of cognitive impairments, notably in executive functioning. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a type of non-invasive brain stimulation, involves the administration of a low-dose electrical current to induce neuromodulation, which ultimately may act on downstream cognitive processing. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of tDCS on executive functioning in geriatric inpatients with symptoms of depression and/or anxiety. Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Specialized geriatric wards in a tertiary rehabilitation hospital. Thirty older-aged adults were recruited, of which twenty completed ten-to-fifteen sessions of 1.5 mA anodal or sham tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Cognitive assessments were administered at baseline and following the tDCS protocol; analyses examined the effects of tDCS on cognitive performance between groups (anodal or sham tDCS). tDCS was found to increase inhibitory processing and cognitive flexibility in the anodal tDCS group, with significant changes on the Stroop test and Trail Making Test-Part B. No significant changes were observed on measures of attention or working memory. These results provide preliminary evidence that tDCS-induced neuromodulation may selectively improve cognitive processing in older adults with symptoms of depression and/or anxiety. www.clinicaltrials.gov, NCT04558177.

The effects of robot-assisted gait training combined with non-invasive brain stimulation on lower limb function in patients with stroke and spinal cord injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective:This study aimed to investigate the effect of robot-assisted gait training (RAGT) therapy combined with non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) on lower limb function in patients with stroke and spinal cord injury (SCI).Data sourcesPubMed, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Ovid MEDLINE, and Web of Science were searched.Study selectionRandomized controlled trials (RCTs) published as of 3 March 2021. RCTs evaluating RAGT combined with NIBS, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), for lower limb function (e.g., Fugl-Meyer assessment for patients with stroke) and activities (i.e., gait velocity) in patients with stroke and SCI were included.Data extractionTwo reviewers independently screened the records, extracted the data, and assessed the risk of bias.Data synthesisA meta-analysis of five studies (104 participants) and risk of bias were conducted. Pooled estimates demonstrated that RAGT combined with NIBS significantly improved lower limb function [standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.52; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.06–0.99] but not lower limb activities (SMD = −0.13; 95% CI = −0.63–0.38). Subgroup analyses also failed to find a greater improvement in lower limb function of RAGT with tDCS compared to sham stimulation. No significant differences between participant characteristics or types of NIBS were observed.ConclusionThis meta-analysis demonstrated that RAGT therapy in combination with NIBS was effective in patients with stroke and SCI. However, a greater improvement in lower limb function and activities were not observed using RAGT with tDCS compared to sham stimulation.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) for the treatment and investigation of Phantom Limb Pain (PLP).

Phantom limb pain (PLP) is a complex medical condition that is often difficult to treat, and thus can become detrimental to patients' quality of life. No standardized clinical treatments exist and there is no conclusive understanding of the underlying mechanisms causing it. Noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has been used to find correlations between changes in brain activity and various brain conditions, including neurological disease, mental illnesses, and brain disorders. Studies have also shown that NIBS can be effective in alleviating pain. Here, we examined the literature on a particular type of NIBS, known as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and its application to the treatment of PLP. We first discuss the current hypotheses on the working mechanism of tDCS and then we examine published evidence of its efficacy to treat PLP. We conclude this article by discussing how tDCS alone, and in combination with brain imaging techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetic resonance imagining, could be applied to further investigate the mechanisms underlying PLP.

Effects of non-invasive brain stimulation in dystonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Deep brain stimulation is a highly effective treatment of dystonia but is invasive and associated with risks, such as intraoperative bleeding and infections. Previous research has used non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) in an attempt to alleviate symptoms of dystonia. The results of these studies, however, have been variable, leaving efficacy unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of NIBS on symptoms of dystonia and determine whether methodological characteristics are associated with variability in effect size. Web of Science, Embase, and MEDLINE Complete databases were searched for articles using any type of NIBS as an intervention in dystonia patients, with changes in dystonia symptoms the primary outcome of interest. Meta-analysis of 27 studies demonstrated a small effect size for NIBS in reducing symptoms of dystonia (random-effects Hedges' g = 0.21, p = .002). Differences in the type of NIBS, type of dystonia, and brain region stimulated had a significant effect on dystonia symptoms. Meta-regression revealed that 10 sessions of active stimulation and the application of concurrent motor training programs resulted in significantly larger mean effect sizes. NIBS has yielded small improvements to dystonic symptoms, but effect sizes depended on methodological characteristics, with more sessions of stimulation producing a larger response. Future research should further investigate the application of NIBS parallel to motor training, in addition to providing a greater quantity of sessions, to help define optimal parameters for NIBS protocols in dystonia. PROSPERO 2020, CRD42020175944.

The effect of non-invasive brain stimulation on neuroplasticity in the early recovery period after ischemic stroke

Studying the different variants of NIBS influence on synaptic neuroplasticity in the early recovery period after ischemic stroke. The rehabilitation of 62 patients with PSCI syndrome after ischemic stroke outcomes were studied. The patients were assigned to 5 groups. Patients from the control group underwent standardized nootropic therapy and course sessions with a neuropsychologist. The rest of the patients were divided into 4 groups, in which, in addition to the basic program of cognitive rehabilitation, different options for the course use of NIBS were used: photochromotherapy (PCT) with narrow-band optical radiation (NOR) with a wavelength of 530 nm (green light); rhythmic transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) with a low-intensity high-frequency running pulsed magnetic field; infrared radiation with a wavelength of 1-56 microns, modulated by terahertz frequencies (IRMT); bioacoustic correction (BAC). We analyzed the dynamics of changes in scores of MMSE scales, FAB, Roshchina. In order to assess the effect of NIBS on neuroplasticity, the concentrations of BDNF and antibodies to the NR2 fragment of the NMDA receptor were evaluated before and after the completion of the rehabilitation course. Concentration values of antibodies to the NR2 subunit of the NMDA receptor in all groups remained consistently above the norm (more than 2 ng/ml) throughout the entire course of rehabilitation. Differences between groups in the dynamics of BDNF concentration in the peripheral blood were revealed. There was a significant (p<0.05) decrease in its concentration by almost 2 times by the end of rehabilitation course in control group. In the rTMS and IRMT groups, a decrease in the BDNF concentration was also recorded in dynamics, which, however, did not reach a significant level. There was no decrease in BDNF levels in the BAC group. There was an increase of this level in the PCT group. The use of different types of NIBS in the program of cognitive rehabilitation of patients with PSCI syndrome contributes to an increase in the rehabilitation potential due to the activation of neurotrophin-mediated synaptic neuroplasticity. Green light PCT and BAC have the greatest effect on increasing neuroplasticity after ischemic stroke.

Transcranial Brain Stimulation Improves Cognition in Older Adults With Depression and Anxiety

Older adults admitted to hospital for rehabilitation often have some degree of concomitant cognitive impairment, which may be a barrier to optimizing rehabilitation approaches. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a type of non-invasive brain stimulation, delivers a low electrical current across the brain. The neuromodulatory effects of tDCS can be of therapeutic benefit and has been shown to augment cognitive functions in both healthy and clinical populations. This study investigated the effects of tDCS on cognition in older adult inpatients with depression or anxiety. It was hypothesized that anodal tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex would increase cognitive performance compared to a placebo group. Twenty adults between 65 to 86 years of age admitted to the Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital with underlying depression or anxiety were recruited. Anodal (n=10) or sham (n=10) tDCS stimulation was administered at 1.5mA over 20 minutes, for 10-15 sessions based on participant availability. Cognitive assessments were administered before and after the tDCS protocol. Anodal tDCS stimulation resulted in significant gains on the Symbol Digit Modality Test, Trail Making Test Part A, and Forward Digit Span. This study demonstrated a tDCS-invoked cognitive enhancement in the domains of attention, information processing speed, and short-term memory processes. With the rapidly ageing population, tDCS may be a potential therapeutic option for cognitive enhancement and may be beneficial in ageing-related cognitive-disorders including mild cognitive impairment and dementia.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for lower extremity motor function in patients with stroke: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

Transcranial magnetic stimulation, a type of noninvasive brain stimulation, has become an ancillary therapy for motor function rehabilitation. Most previous studies have focused on the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on motor function in stroke patients. There have been relatively few studies on the effects of different modalities of rTMS on lower extremity motor function and corticospinal excitability in patients with stroke. The MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, ISI Science Citation Index, Physiotherapy Evidence Database, China National Knowledge Infrastructure Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases were searched. Parallel or crossover randomized controlled trials that addressed the effectiveness of rTMS in patients with stroke, published from inception to November 28, 2019, were included. Standard pairwise meta-analysis was conducted using R version 3.6.1 with the “meta” package. Bayesian network analysis using the Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of different rTMS protocol interventions. Network meta-analysis results of 18 randomized controlled trials regarding lower extremity motor function recovery revealed that low-frequency rTMS had better efficacy in promoting lower extremity motor function recovery than sham stimulation. Network meta-analysis results of five randomized controlled trials demonstrated that high-frequency rTMS led to higher amplitudes of motor evoked potentials than low-frequency rTMS or sham stimulation. These findings suggest that rTMS can improve motor function in patients with stroke, and that low-frequency rTMS mainly affects motor function, whereas high-frequency rTMS increases the amplitudes of motor evoked potentials. More high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to validate this conclusion. The work was registered in PROSPERO (registration No. CRD42020147055) on April 28, 2020.

Gait and Functional Mobility in Multiple Sclerosis: Immediate Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) Paired With Aerobic Exercise.

Walking impairments are a debilitating feature of multiple sclerosis (MS) because of the direct interference with daily activity. The management of motor symptoms in those with MS remains a therapeutic challenge. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a type of non-invasive brain stimulation that is emerging as a promising rehabilitative tool but requires further characterization to determine its optimal therapeutic use. In this randomized, sham-controlled proof-of-concept study, we tested the immediate effects of a single tDCS session on walking and functional mobility in those with MS. Seventeen participants with MS completed one 20-min session of aerobic exercise, randomly assigned to be paired with either active (2.5 mA, n = 9) or sham (n = 8) tDCS over the primary motor cortex (M1). The groups (active vs. sham) were matched according to gender (50% vs. 60% F), age (52.1 ± 12.85 vs. 54.2 ± 8.5 years), and level of neurological disability (median Expanded Disability Status Scale score 5.5 vs. 5). Gait speed on the 10-m walk test and the Timed Up and Go (TUG) time were measured by a wearable inertial sensor immediately before and following the 20-min session, with changes compared between conditions and time. There were no significant differences in gait speed or TUG time changes following the session in the full sample or between the active vs. sham groups. These findings suggest that a single session of anodal tDCS over M1 is not sufficient to affect walking and functional mobility in those with MS. Instead, behavioral motor response of tDCS is likely to be cumulative, and the effects of multiple tDCS sessions require further study.Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03658668.

Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Does Not Improve Neuropathic Pain in Individuals With Spinal Cord Injury

The aim of the study was to examine the effectiveness of noninvasive brain stimulation on neuropathic pain in individuals with spinal cord injury. A meta-analysis on pain intensity, depression, and anxiety levels was conducted to evaluate the effect of noninvasive brain stimulation on neuropathic pain in individuals with spinal cord injury. The authors searched Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE (PubMed), Embase (OvidSP), PsycINFO (OvidSP), and Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro). Randomized controlled trials comparing noninvasive brain stimulation with sham stimulation were included. Eleven studies were selected. The pooled analysis demonstrated no significant effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation, or cranial electrotherapy stimulation on neuropathic pain reduction after spinal cord injury. In addition, noninvasive brain stimulation showed no beneficial effect over sham stimulation on the improvement of depression, while it yielded a significant reduction of anxiety levels immediately after treatment. Subgroup analysis showed that only cranial electrotherapy stimulation had a significant effect on the reduction of anxiety levels among the three types of noninvasive brain stimulation. In individuals with spinal cord injury, no significant effects of noninvasive brain stimulation on neuropathic pain and depression were observed. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation may be beneficial for the management of anxiety. These findings do not support the routine use of noninvasive brain stimulation for neuropathic pain in individuals with spinal cord injury.

The Use of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Specifically Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation After Stroke.

The Use of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Specifically Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation After Stroke.

Moving Forward by Stimulating the Brain: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Post-Stroke Hemiparesis.

Stroke remains a leading cause of disability worldwide, with a majority of survivors experiencing long term decrements in motor function that severely undermine quality of life. While many treatment approaches and adjunctive strategies exist to remediate motor impairment, many are only efficacious or feasible for survivors with active hand and wrist function, a population who constitute only a minority of stroke survivors. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a type of non-invasive brain stimulation, has been increasingly utilized to increase motor function following stroke as it is able to be used with stroke survivors of varying impairment levels, is portable, is relatively inexpensive and has few side effects and contraindications. Accordingly, in recent years the number of studies investigating its efficacy when utilized as an adjunct to motor rehabilitation regimens has drastically increased. While many of these trials have reported positive and promising efficacy, methodologies vary greatly between studies, including differences in stimulation parameters, outcome measures and the nature of physical practice. As such, an urgent need remains, centering on the need to investigate these methodological differences and synthesize the most current evidence surrounding the application of tDCS for post-stroke motor rehabilitation. Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to provide a detailed overview of the most recent tDCS literature (published 2014-2015), while highlighting these variations in methodological approach, as well to elucidate the mechanisms associated with tDCS and post-stroke motor re-learning and neuroplasticity.

Spatial localization and distribution of the TMS-related ‘hotspot’ of the tibialis anterior muscle representation in the healthy and post-stroke motor cortex

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a type of noninvasive brain stimulation used to study corticomotor excitability of the intact and injured brain. Identification of muscle representations in the motor cortex is typically done using a procedure called ‘hotspotting’, which involves establishing the optimal location on the scalp that evokes a maximum TMS response with minimum stimulator intensity. The purpose of this study was to report the hotspot locations for the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle representation in the motor cortex of healthy and post stroke individuals. A retrospective data analyses from 42 stroke participants and 32 healthy participants was conducted for reporting TMS hotspot locations and their spatial patterns. Single pulse TMS, using a 110mm double cone coil, was used to identify the motor representation of the TA. The hotspot locations were represented as x and y-distances from the vertex for each participant. The mediolateral extent of the loci from the vertex (x-coordinate) and anteroposterior extent of the loci from the vertex (y-coordinate) was reported for each hemisphere: non-lesioned (XNLes, YNLes), lesioned (XLes, YLes) and healthy (XH, YH). We found that the mean hotspot loci for TA muscle from the vertex were approximately: 1.29cm lateral and 0.55cm posterior in the non-lesioned hemisphere, 1.25cm lateral and 0.5cm posterior in the lesioned hemisphere and 1.6cm lateral and 0.8cm posterior in the healthy brain. There was no significant difference in the x- and y-coordinates between the lesioned and non-lesioned hemispheres. However, the locations of the XNLes (p=0.01) and XLes (p=0.004) were significantly different from XH. The YNLes and YLes showed no significant differences from YH loci. Analyses of spatial clustering patterns using the Moran's I index showed a negative autocorrelation in stroke participants (NLes: Moran's I=−0.09, p<0.001; Les: Moran's I=−0.14, p=0.002), and a positive autocorrelation in healthy participants (Moran's I=0.16, p<0.001), suggesting that individuals with stroke demonstrated a more dispersed pattern of hotspot locations than healthy individuals. Our results suggest that the hotspot loci show different spatial patterns in healthy and stroke individuals. The hotspot locations from this study has the potential to provide a guideline for optimal stimulation locations for the TA muscle in healthy and post stroke individuals for neuromodulation procedures such as transcranial direct current stimulation.

Transcranial Stimulation over Frontopolar Cortex Elucidates the Choice Attributes and Neural Mechanisms Used to Resolve Exploration-Exploitation Trade-Offs.

Optimal behavior requires striking a balance between exploiting tried-and-true options or exploring new possibilities. Neuroimaging studies have identified different brain regions in humans where neural activity is correlated with exploratory or exploitative behavior, but it is unclear whether this activity directly implements these choices or simply reflects a byproduct of the behavior. Moreover, it remains unknown whether arbitrating between exploration and exploitation can be influenced with exogenous methods, such as brain stimulation. In our study, we addressed these questions by selectively upregulating and downregulating neuronal excitability with anodal or cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation over right frontopolar cortex during a reward-learning task. This caused participants to make slower, more exploratory or faster, more exploitative decisions, respectively. Bayesian computational modeling revealed that stimulation affected how much participants took both expected and obtained rewards into account when choosing to exploit or explore: Cathodal stimulation resulted in an increased focus on the option expected to yield the highest payout, whereas anodal stimulation led to choices that were less influenced by anticipated payoff magnitudes and were more driven by recent negative reward prediction errors. These findings suggest that exploration is triggered by a neural mechanism that is sensitive to prior less-than-expected choice outcomes and thus pushes people to seek out alternative courses of action. Together, our findings establish a parsimonious neurobiological mechanism that causes exploration and exploitation, and they provide new insights into the choice features used by this mechanism to direct decision-making.

Paired associative transcranial alternating current stimulation increases the excitability of corticospinal projections in humans.

Many types of non-invasive brain stimulation alter corticospinal excitability (CSE). Paired associative stimulation (PAS) has attracted particular attention as its effects ostensibly adhere to Hebbian principles of neural plasticity. In prototypical form, a single electrical stimulus is directed to a peripheral nerve in close temporal contiguity with transcranial magnetic stimulation delivered to the contralateral primary motor cortex (M1). Repeated pairing of the two discrete stimulus events (i.e. association) over an extended period either increases or decreases the excitability of corticospinal projections from M1, contingent on the interstimulus interval. We studied a novel form of associative stimulation, consisting of brief trains of peripheral afferent stimulation paired with short bursts of high frequency (≥80 Hz) transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) over contralateral M1. Elevations in the excitability of corticospinal projections to the forearm were observed for a range of tACS frequency (80, 140 and 250 Hz), current (1, 2 and 3 mA) and duration (500 and 1000 ms) parameters. The effects were at least as reliable as those brought about by PAS or transcranial direct current stimulation. When paired with tACS, muscle tendon vibration also induced elevations of CSE. No such changes were brought about by the tACS or peripheral afferent stimulation alone. In demonstrating that associative effects are expressed when the timing of the peripheral and cortical events is not precisely circumscribed, these findings suggest that multiple cellular pathways may contribute to a long term potentiation-type response. Their relative contributions will differ depending on the nature of the induction protocol that is used.

Brain stimulation to improve human memory

Memory Enhancement The hippocampus is a crucial brain area for certain types of memory. Working with humans, Wang et al. found that a specific type of non-invasive brain stimulation improved memory tests and enhanced information flow between the hippocampus and a number of other brain regions. This increased connectivity was highly specific for the individual target areas selected for each participant. Science , this issue p. [1054][1] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1252900

Targeted enhancement of cortical-hippocampal brain networks and associative memory.

The influential notion that the hippocampus supports associative memory by interacting with functionally distinct and distributed brain regions has not been directly tested in humans. We therefore used targeted noninvasive electromagnetic stimulation to modulate human cortical-hippocampal networks and tested effects of this manipulation on memory. Multiple-session stimulation increased functional connectivity among distributed cortical-hippocampal network regions and concomitantly improved associative memory performance. These alterations involved localized long-term plasticity because increases were highly selective to the targeted brain regions, and enhancements of connectivity and associative memory persisted for ~24 hours after stimulation. Targeted cortical-hippocampal networks can thus be enhanced noninvasively, demonstrating their role in associative memory.

Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Transiently Improves Contrast Sensitivity and Normalizes Visual Cortex Activation in Individuals With Amblyopia

Background. Amblyopia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of vision that is associated with abnormal patterns of neural inhibition within the visual cortex. This disorder is often considered to be untreatable in adulthood because of insufficient visual cortex plasticity. There is increasing evidence that interventions that target inhibitory interactions within the visual cortex, including certain types of noninvasive brain stimulation, can improve visual function in adults with amblyopia. Objective. We tested the hypothesis that anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (a-tDCS) would improve visual function in adults with amblyopia by enhancing the neural response to inputs from the amblyopic eye. Methods. Thirteen adults with amblyopia participated and contrast sensitivity in the amblyopic and fellow fixing eye was assessed before, during and after a-tDCS or cathodal tDCS (c-tDCS). Five participants also completed a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study designed to investigate the effect of a-tDCS on the blood oxygen level–dependent response within the visual cortex to inputs from the amblyopic versus the fellow fixing eye. Results. A subgroup of 8/13 participants showed a transient improvement in amblyopic eye contrast sensitivity for at least 30 minutes after a-tDCS. fMRI measurements indicated that the characteristic cortical response asymmetry in amblyopes, which favors the fellow eye, was reduced by a-tDCS. Conclusions. These preliminary results suggest that a-tDCS deserves further investigation as a potential tool to enhance amblyopia treatment outcomes in adults.

Mechanisms and pathways underlying the therapeutic effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation

It has been almost 40 years since Barker, Jalinous, and Freeston designed and used the first device of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). From then until now, this technique has evolved vertiginously, appearing a lot of new protocols and device modifications, which associated with new technologies complement and enhance the versatility of this technique. TMS has demonstrated to be a safe technology and become a key tool in the study of the complex brain processes. Despite this, it is as a therapeutic tool where this technique has caused a revolution. In this regard, this type of non-invasive brain stimulation has been proven useful in a variety of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders due to its biochemical, molecular, and cellular effects, with depression being the paradigm of the therapeutic effectiveness of this technique. This review focuses on a detailed vision of how this type of radiation modifies different biochemical and cellular processes that induce the mechanisms and pathways underlying the therapeutic effects of TMS.

Neuromodulation of Decision-Making in the Addictive Brain

Noninvasive brain stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation can modify decision-making behaviors in healthy subjects. The same type of noninvasive brain stimulation can suppress drug craving in substance user patients, who often display impaired decision-making behaviors. We discuss the implications of these studies for the cognitive neurosciences and their translational applications to the treatment of addictions. We propose a neurocognitive model that can account for our findings and suggests a promising therapeutic role of brain stimulation in the treatment of substance abuse and addictive behavior disorders.