Two-child Family Research Articles

A comparison of the parental values of children's extracurricular music learning in Guilin, China and in Tampa, United States.

Many parents enroll their children in extracurricular music activities. However, cultural differences may contribute to parents' different values that ultimately influence their behaviors and attitudes. This cross-cultural study aimed to compare the value parents have on their children's private music education by examining four cases in Guilin, Guangxi (China) and Tampa, Florida (United States). Two main research questions guided this study: (1) How do parents in Guilin and Tampa perceive and value their children's music learning? (2) Does the value parents hold for their children's extracurricular music activities differ across different cultural contexts? If so, how do parents' values and perceptions of their children's involvement in extracurricular music activities differ between the contexts of Guilin and Tampa? We purposefully selected participants from two regions based on these criteria: (a) the participants included a single-child family and a two-child family in each of the two regions; (b) children's age ranged from 5 to 12 years and lived with their biological parents (c) children were currently taking music lessons after school. We interviewed both children and parents during the data collection. The key findings reveal that parental values transcend two cultural contexts, specifically in (1) motivations for music learning, (2) expectations of music learning, (3) utilizing personal background, and (4) strategies for success. The findings suggest that several factors, such as children's autonomy, musical joy, pursuit of musical career, "beauty development" and achievements, may have contributed to parents' values. The implication for parents, psychologists, and policymakers is to understand the diverse needs and values within different cultural backgrounds, to promote the children's development, to design curricula, and to use effective teaching methods in music education. In conclusion, both Guilin's and Tampa's parents' values varied due to cultural differences, which further influenced their behaviors, attitudes and perceptions toward their children's musical experiences.

Reproductive attitudes of childhood and birth control among young people

In the conditions of modern society, there is a transformation of reproductive cultural norms that determine the consciousness of the younger generation. The study of young’s reproductive attitudes is becoming especially relevant in the context of Russia's demographic policy aimed at expanded reproduction of the population and the preservation of traditional family values. The purpose of the article was to study the peculiarities of the reproductive attitudes of young people, first of all, the attitudes of childhood and birth control (through abortions and Childfree ideas). According to the results of a survey of 400 people aged 18-35 years, it is shown that the content of the reproductive attitudes of the younger generation is rather positive. Young people are focused, at least, on building a two-child family, under favorable conditions - a large one. The implementation of reproductive plans significantly depends on the situation in private life and the country, is flexible, involves the use of various methods of reproductive control, including abortion and unplanned birth. The attitude to Childfree's ideas in the minds of young people is largely neutral and clearly not differentiated. The authors conclude that young people reflect the trends existing in society and implement a compromise version of reproductive behavior: the attitudes of childhood correspond to the traditional value type, and the attitude to abortion and childfree ideas correspond to the hedonistic-feminist type.

Clinical and genetic analysis of two patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia caused by a novel variant of DNAAF2

BackgroundThe study describes the clinical manifestations and variant screening of two Chinese siblings with primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD). They carry the same DNAAF2 genotype, which is an extremely rare PCD genotype in the Chinese population. In addition, the study illustrated an overview of published variants on DNAAF2 to date.MethodsA two-child family was recruited for the study. Clinical manifestations, laboratory tests, bronchoscopic and otoscopic images, and radiographic data were collected. Whole blood was collected from siblings and their parents for whole-exome sequencing (WES) and Sanger sequencing to screen variants.ResultsThe two siblings exhibited typical clinical manifestations of PCD. Two compound heterozygous variants in DNAAF2 were detected in both by WES. Nonsense variant c.156 C>A and frameshift variant c.177_178insA, which was a novel variant.ConclusionThe study identified a novel variant of DNAAF2 in Chinese children with a typical phenotype of PCD, which may enrich our knowledge of the clinical, diagnostic and genetic information of DNAAF2-induced PCD in children.

Transitions to Second Birth and Birth Intervals in France and Spain: Time Squeeze or Social Norms?

As first births are increasingly postponed across Europe, a strong two-child family norm persists. Past research has examined educational differentials in progressions to second birth, testing various hypotheses but overlooking normative aspects. Comparing fertility surveys from France and Spain, we explore whether late first-time mothers, who have fewer reproductive biological years left to conceive, accelerate the transition to a subsequent child (time squeeze effect). We also consider a normative dimension, i.e., whether women have their first child earlier or later than others in their educational and cohort groups. In both countries, among first-time mothers between 25 and 34 years of age, highly-educated women transitioned to second birth more frequently than less-educated women did. Within the same age group, highly-educated women in Spain had a second child more quickly after the firstborn than their less educated counterparts did, while there is no such difference in France. These results hold after controlling for cohort effects, but are only partly explained by a time squeeze effect. Different normative ages at first birth by education and birth cohort explain the educational gap in the likelihood of transitioning to second birth, but not the birth intervals in Spain. In sum, our analysis demonstrates a persistent educational gap in second births in this country that cannot be reduced to biological or normative effects. This suggests that a broad range of economic constraints play a role, such as unfavourable individual economic conditions and lower levels of institutional support for parenthood.

Prediction of Population Structure in China based on Difference Equation Model

Population is the core issue of the development of human society, and predicting the future population changes is an important basis for a country or region to formulate corresponding policies. The theoretical basis of the prediction of population development process is the population development equation, that is, the mathematical model of population development. Aiming at the problem of population structure in China, based on the collection, calculation, collation and analysis of relevant population data, this paper builds a prediction model of population structure in China based on the difference equation method, so as to predict the population of China, and compare it with the original population data to verify and improve the model. The results show that if the current family planning policy remains unchanged, the population structure of China will be aging seriously by 2050. If the two-child family planning policy is implemented, the aging trend of China's population structure will be obviously improved, and it will be an adult population structure after 2030. If the family planning program that is looser than the two-child policy is implemented, the population structure of China will change fundamentally, and the population structure will be in line with the characteristics of younger population structure. In order to provide some reference for the formulation of relevant policies.

Assessing the Impact of the “Two-child Policy” in China: The Effects of the Second Child on the Growth of Teenagers

Purpose: China’s new universal two-child policy has brought a baby boom of the second child in 2016. With the changing family structures, elder children in adolescence may have more and more emotional and even psychological problems such as “two-child syndrome”. This paper aims to explore the “influence factors and mechanism of the second child on the growth of teenagers” and has great practical significance to promote the physical and mental health of teenagers and the harmony of two-child families. Design/methodology/approach: By means of literature analysis, in-depth interview, questionnaire survey and statistical analysis, the elder children aged 12 to 18 in the two-child family were taken as the main body of the survey, and an empirical research based on NLP understanding hierarchy theory was carried out. Major Findings: (1) The most significant influence on the growth of teenagers is the attitude of parents, and then the gender of the first child. (2) Parents’ favouritism towards the second child would lead to decline in the first child’s academic performance. (3) The higher the family income, the less the influence on the first child’s life. (4) When the age difference is large, the first child and the second child are not easy to have conflicts. Practical implications: Parents should try to treat any children equally. Parents should pay attention to the sibling relationship of their two children with small age gap. Parents who have two children with a large age gap should properly guide the elder child to help take care of the younger brother or sister. Originality/value: This study contributes to the growing literature focusing on the influence factors and mechanism of the second child on the growth of teenagers in the context of China’s new universal two-child policy. It adds some early empirical insights on the physical and mental health of teenagers in twochild families.

Fertility dynamics and reproductive behaviour of men and women entering into marriage in the Republic of Bashkortostan

The article is devoted to the analysis of the fertility rate dynamics in the Republic of Bashkortostan and the study of the reproductive behaviour of the population entering into a registered marriage. The author examines the crude and total fertility rates, the net population reproduction rate, the total fertility rate by the order of births, as well as age-specific fertility rates. In addition, basing on the data of population surveys, the author regards reproductive intentions of citizens applying for marriage in the registry office, as well as reasons that may prevent them from having a child. The study shows that the Republic of Bashkortostan is characterized by a low fertility rate; the generation of children does not replace the generation of parents. The reproductive intentions of the respondents measured by the desired and expected number of children correspond to the small (two-child) family model. Among the main reasons that can prevent the birth of a child, the first two are financial and housing difficulties, and third is the desire to live for oneself for a while.

Exploratory Study on Family Leisure Constraints of the Twochild Family in China

Driven by the two-child policy, there are more and more two-child families in China. The purpose of this research was to examine the leisure constraints of these families in Chinese urban areas. Based on interviews with the parents from 12 families and the leisure constraint theory, the main factors are identified. First, intrapersonal constraints, which include personal physical constraints (such as insufficient postpartum recovery) and psychological constraints(such as stress). Second, interpersonal constraints, which mainly come from family members (such as family support) and friends (such as narrowing social circles). Third, structural constraints, like family income, climate conditions, facilities, free time for leisure. Besides, the study also discovered a new type of constraint-cultural constraints, which is embodied in familism. This factor is close to the other three constraints and affects them. Based on this, the research proposed a new hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Finally, the article puts forward some suggestions for future research on family leisure under the influence of the two-child policy.

Why Has the Share of Two-Child Families Stopped Growing? Trends in Education-Specific Parity Distribution in Low-Fertility Countries

During the last four decades, the two-child family ideal has become nearly universal across the low-fertility countries. The proportion of families with two children, which was growing during the baby boom, stopped increasing in the late 1940s and early 1950s birth cohorts, remaining far below the number of people reporting two as their ideal family size. This paper examines how changes in the share of two-child families were linked to trends in the transitions to first, second and third birth. We analyse how the relationship varied over time across countries and education levels using census and large-scale survey data for women born between 1936 and 1970 in 12 European countries, Australia, New Zealand and the United States. The results suggest that in most countries the changes in the share of two-child families were closely linked to the progression to third birth. Increasing childlessness also suppressed the number of two-child families in Western Germany and English-speaking countries. Changes in the transition to second birth played a non-negligible role in Southern Europe, English-speaking countries and, except among the low-educated, in Central-Eastern Europe.

Two is Best? The Persistence of a Two-child Family Ideal in Europe

Two is Best? The Persistence of a Two-child Family Ideal in Europe

The consequence of birth spacing for first- and second-born siblings’ long-term income rank: A restrictive two-child family approach

Birth spacing between siblings may have long-lasting impacts on them. This paper focuses on how different birth-spacing intervals are associated with income rank during the ages 33 to 42 years. In order to disentangle birth spacing from birth order, while holding potential sibsize association constant, an interaction model is used on a restrictive subpopulation of two-child families born between 1960 and 1970. The results show clear differences between first- and second-born siblings. Increased birth spacing, up to 3 years, is positively associated with first-born siblings’ income rank. Birth spacing has a negligible association with second-born siblings, at the common spacing intervals (less than 5 years). Having relatively high spacing intervals (over 5 years) is associated with somewhat lower income-rank than having mid-length intervals for both first- and second-born siblings.

Parenting stress, social support and parenting self-efficacy in Chinese families : does the number of children matter?

ABSTRACT This study examined the differences between the one-child family and two-child family regarding the effect of social support on parenting stress through parenting self-efficacy using multiple group structural equation modelling. A Chinese sample of 6131 one-child families and 4816 two-child families participated in the study. Parents independently completed self-report measures to evaluate social support, parenting self-efficacy and parenting stress. The results showed that the two-child family reported more parenting stress, less social support and lower parenting self-efficacy than the one-child family. Social support directly and indirectly alleviated parenting stress for the one-child family, and it only indirectly related to parenting stress through parenting self-efficacy for the two-child family. Overall, this study emphasized the effect of social support and parenting self-efficacy on parenting stress, and provided an empirical basis for alleviating parenting stress for parents with one or two young children.

Mothers' Subjective Well-Being after Having a Second Child in Current China: A Case Study of Xi'an City.

The introduction of the two-child family planning policy in China calls for a study of the response of mothers’ subjective well-being after the birth of a second child. Generally focusing on Western countries, previous studies suggested that a series of factors could influence the response, but insufficient attention has been paid to the relative importance of these factors so far. Based on survey data from mothers of two children in the Xi’an metropolitan area, Shaanxi Province, China, our study indicates that the important factors associated with mothers’ life satisfaction after having a second child were, in general, common to Western countries and China. There were also two factors somewhat unique to China: positive adjustment (i.e., becoming happier) by firstborn children (average age, 6 years old) following a sibling’s birth, predicted enhanced life satisfaction for mothers; additionally, mothers who had both a son and a daughter reported the highest increase in life satisfaction, while mothers who had two sons reported the lowest increase. Socioenvironmental constraints (i.e., parenting pressure and work–family conflict) had a larger association with mothers’ life satisfaction than individual ideational factors (e.g., family orientation and fertility desire). These findings suggest that fertility-friendly policies and convenient family intervention institutions are needed to alleviate potential undesirable consequences and improve maternal life quality following a second childbirth so that the two-child policy can be a success.

Low fertility trend in the Republic of Korea and the problems of its family and demographic policy implementation

The article analyzes the population trends and the family and demographic policy in the contemporary Republic of Korea. The main emphasis is made on the analysis of low birth rate in the country. Until the end of the 20th century, the two-child family model prevailed in South Korea, however, in the last decade birth and marriage rates have become among the lowest in the world. Why has fertility fallen so dramatically far below replacement level? The article discusses the causes of fertility decline, as well as the social factors that contribute to and hinder the implementation of state measures to stimulate and increase the birth rate in the Republic of Korea. In particular, the social and gender aspects of solving the problem of low fertility are analyzed.

Sibling relationship quality and young children’s mental health in Chinese two-child families

With enactment of the universal two-child policy in China in 2016, the two-child family will replace the one-child family as the main family form. In this study we examined the contribution of sibling relationship quality in shaping the mental health of Chinese children in a two-child family. Parents (N = 280) reported the quality of their children’s sibling relationship, and their firstborn’s problematic and prosocial behavior, and temperament. Parents’ marital satisfaction and coparenting were also assessed. The results showed that after we had controlled for the child characteristics of age, gender, temperament, sibling age difference, and sibling gender difference, and for the parental characteristics of age and marital satisfaction, and coparenting, sibling negativity and positivity were both significantly related to child problematic behavior. In addition, sibling positivity was significantly related to child prosocial behavior. The results suggest that parents in a two-child family should provide guidance for their children’s sibling relationship, and, in particular, increase the children’s positive interaction to improve their mental health.

Is the Family Size of Parents and Children Still Related? Revisiting the Cross-Generational Relationship Over the Last Century

In most developed countries, the fertility levels of parents and children are positively correlated. This article analyzes the strength of the intergenerational transmission of family size over the last century, including a focus on this reproduction in large and small families. Using the large-scale French Family Survey (2011), we show a weak but significant correlation of approximately 0.12–0.15, which is comparable with levels in other Western countries. It is stronger for women than men, with a gender convergence across cohorts. A decrease in intergenerational transmission is observed across birth cohorts regardless of whether socioeconomic factors are controlled, supporting the idea that the family of origin has lost implicit and explicit influence on fertility choices. As parents were adopting the two-child family norm, the number of siblings lost its importance for having two children, but it continues to explain lower parity and, above all, three-child families. This suggests that the third child has increasingly become an “extra child” (beyond the norm) favored by people from large families.

Факторы формирования репродуктивных установок современной студенческой молодежи в российском регионе (на примере г. Астрахани)

The paper analyzes factors in the development of reproductive attitudes of modern youth. The author identifies that young people being the most active and promising part of the country’s reproductive potential demonstrate family-focused moods, and children are the highest life value for them. Most young people want to have children in the future mainly to fulfill themselves as parents. In their opinion, material well-being and decent housing are the necessary conditions for the birth of the desired number of children. The Russian typical tendency for a two-child family prevails among respondents. The desired number of children that young people really would like to have under all necessary conditions is slightly higher than the number of children that they plan to have considering their real capabilities and conditions.

‘Two children to make ends meet’: the ideal family size, parental responsibilities and costs of children on two sides of the Iron Curtain during the post-war fertility decline

One of the major corollaries of the post-war fertility boom and decline is that two-child families became common across Europe after the 1970s. Despite the general agreement on the convergence of fertility trends, there is still little understanding of how this change took place in a comparative perspective of Western and Eastern Europe, which at that time were characterised by Cold War tensions of different ideological regimes. This study addresses this aspect by focusing on individual decisions around childbearing, child-rearing and family size. Based on 104 oral histories from Switzerland and Ukraine, this study illuminates that the urban setting provided parents with a similar set of constraints and opportunities, which eventually resulted in strikingly similar perceptions of the costs of childrearing on two sides of the Iron Curtain. Individuals’ motives to postpone first birth in Switzerland and second birth in Ukraine rested on a similar aspiration to invest in the well-being of children by ensuring material security for the family. This aim was increasingly achieved through female labour-force participation and adoption of modern contraception – the pill in Switzerland and abortion in Ukraine. While the timing of returning to the labour market and the share of women working after entering parenthood might have varied across the two contexts, a good mother became increasingly defined in both contexts in terms of providing emotionally and financially for her children. Although the introduction of modern birth control methods allowed couples to plan family size more carefully, it also made Swiss and Ukrainian women increasingly carry the major costs and actual burden of birth control. Altogether, this study challenges the common assumption around the persistence of strikingly different demographic realities in post-war Western and Eastern Europe by uncovering the mechanisms behind the stabilisation of family size around the two-child family ideal.

Ultra-low fertility in South Korea: The role of the tempo effect

Background: The total fertility rate (TFR) in South Korea has fallen below 1.3 since 2001. The role of the rapid shift toward a late-childbearing pattern in driving Korean fertility decline to this ultra-low level has been little explored until now. Objective: We provide an in-depth analysis of period fertility trends by birth order in South Korea from 1981 to 2015, when the period TFR fell from 2.57 to extremely low levels. Methods: We combine census and birth registration data to estimate period and cohort fertility indicators by birth order. We compare changes in conventional TFR with tempo- and parity-adjusted total fertility rate (TFRp*) and their birth-order-specific components. Results: The tempo effect linked to the shift toward delayed childbearing has had a strong and persistent negative influence on period TFRs in South Korea since the early 1980s. Without the shift to later childbearing, period fertility rates in South Korea would consistently stay higher and decline more gradually, reaching a threshold of very low fertility, 1.5, only in 2014. The postponement of childbearing and the resulting tempo effect were strongest in the early 2000s, when Korean TFR reached the lowest levels. More recently, Korean fertility has been characterized by a diminishing tempo effect and falling first and second birth rates. This trend marks a break with the previous pattern of almost universal fertility and a strong two-child family model. Contribution: Our study demonstrates the importance of the tempo effect in explaining the shift to ultra-low fertility in South Korea and in East Asia.

Fertility and union formation during crisis and societal consolidation in the Western Balkans

Fertility decline in central and eastern Europe (CEE) since the fall of the communist regimes has been driven by both stopping and postponement of childbearing: two processes that have been related to crisis and economic development, respectively. In the Western Balkans these economic and political contexts followed each other in the form of a biphasic transition. I examine whether this sequence triggered fertility responses like those observed elsewhere. Relying on three independent data sources, I cross-validate the levels of, and describe the trends in, union formation and fertility (by birth order) between 1980 and 2010. Results do not reveal widespread declines in fertility to lowest-low levels during the most acute period of crisis. The subsequent postponement of marriage and first birth was also limited, and the two-child family remains the norm. This relative resilience of childbearing patterns compared with other CEE countries is discussed with reference to the institutional context.