Turkish History Research Articles

Sequencing and characterization of complete mitogenome DNA of worldwide turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) populations

The history of turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) domestication can be traced back to the period between 700 and 200 BC in Mexico. This process involved multiple contributors and resulted in the development of modern local turkey breeds. This research investigates the complete mitochondrial diversity across a diverse range of local turkeys. Seventy-three turkeys were sampled from various populations, including autochthonous Italian breeds, an American breed (Narragansett), as well as wild turkeys from the USA and Mexico. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was employed as a powerful tool for biodiversity and breed phylogeny investigation. An analysis of the entire mtDNA was conducted to identify breed-specific unique traits, mitochondrial-specific characteristics, and the phylogenetic relationship among turkey populations. A total of 44 polymorphic sites were identified. Brianzolo and Narragansett birds were characterized as genetically homogeneous populations. Thirty-two different haplotypes were identified when our samples were compared with mtDNA D-loop of 96 online available turkeys from various geographical countries. H1 and H2, differing for one mutation, were the most abundant, comprising 132 of the 185 sequences. H1 included samples coming from every region, while H2 was predominantly characterized by Italian samples. USA and Mexican samples appear to be more variable in their mtDNA than the other populations.

Navigating historiographical boundaries in the early Turkish Republican period: astrology, nationalism and Aydın Sayılı’s scholarship

This article explores two aspects of Aydın Sayılı’s scholarship: his focus on astrology and the impact of nationalist sentiments on his research. Sayılı, perhaps the first globally recognized PhD-holder in history of science, completed his degree at Harvard in the early 1940s and established Turkey’s first academic chair in the field at the University of Ankara. His works addressed both international and local audiences, advancing the history of mathematics and astronomy in Islamic societies; his scholarship on Islamic observatories is still highly esteemed today. This study highlights Sayılı’s integration of astrology into discussions in the history of science, especially with respect to Islamic observatories, a significant choice in an era when astrology and related disciplines received minimal attention in Turkish historiography. While his approach to this discipline diverges from that of prevalent twentieth-century Turkish scholarship, Sayılı’s motivations were deeply intertwined with the nationalist sentiments of the early Turkish Republic, emphasizing ‘Turkish contributions to science’. His scholarship invites further examination of the intricate relationship between the historiography of science and nationalism, as well as of twentieth-century historicizations of astrological studies.

Reading for the future: İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, a collection without origin

ABSTRACT Reşad Ekrem Koçu’s İstanbul Ansiklopedisi (the Encyclopaedia of Istanbul) is a remarkable undertaking covering various periods in Istanbul during the Ottoman Empire and in recent Turkish history. The colourful and compelling picture of Istanbul that Koçu presented in the encyclopaedia was imbued with his nostalgia. In this article, which takes its cue from the archival turn in the twentieth century, I provide a rereading of İstanbul Ansiklopedisi by scrutinising the ways in which Koçu’s nostalgia functioned as a generative desire in the compilation of the encyclopaedia. I argue that the encyclopaedia entries link various temporalities and spatialities to create a unique, idiosyncratic Istanbul. Due to the organisation of the encyclopaedia, which entails the overlapping of different times and spaces, the encyclopaedia disrupts the linearity of history, opens up possibilities for new contexts for its readers, and generates hope for the future.

Forms of Modernization of Islamic Education in Türkiye in the 19th Century AD

Discussion of the modernization of Islamic education in Türkiye is nothing new. This remarkable writing about Turkish history in every perspective, makes the specificity of this article about the history of education born in Turkey. The learning method for educational modernization carried out in Turkey shows that it has been going on for a long time because of modernization for other Muslim countries that have been paying attention to education for a long time. Based on this article, it is discussed, in order to trace the background to the emergence of educational modernization in Turkey. This is to find forms of modernization as was done during that time in the field of education. So the birth of educational modernization is the impact of this situation that occurs in the social, political and economic system in Turkey. The factors of European expansion, rigid bureaucratic systems, the progress of European countries were the culmination of social change in Turkish society, giving rise to the Modernization of Education. As a result, policies and orientations emerged that brought progress to Turkey in the timing and future of exchanges. Educational modernization is a school model established by the government and society to use the curriculum implemented in schools. The treatment is carried out by adding modern science, let religious sciences be in their position, and disappear and then reappear and ultimately integrate religious knowledge with modern science is a progressive action in advancing education. Education in the form of Turkish modernization began in the 18th century, continued in the 18th century, 19th century to 20th century; Establishment of schools, empowerment communities, curriculum development, and rationalization of liberation in Turkey.

Comparative Analysis of Traditional and Modern Religious Buildings in Terms of Materials and Construction Techniques: The Turkish Mosques Cases

Religious buildings are cultural symbols of societies in urban life. Mosque architecture, one of the religious structures that entered Turkish history and architectural culture with the acceptance of Islam by the Turks, developed over time and reached its peak in terms of architectural formation during the Ottoman period. Although religious buildings are thought to be less affected by social change throughout history, unlike other architectural structures, mosques are seen to be affected by the social and cultural structure that changes over time. Religious buildings, apart from being places of worship in social life, are also meeting points and social sharing areas. This situation shows that it will not be possible for religious buildings to remain indifferent to the changing needs, building materials and living standards over time. The aim of the study is to explain the use of developing and transforming materials and construction techniques in mosques in Türkiye. Within the scope of the study, the reflection of traditional and modern architecture in mosques was discussed and the transformation of buildings in different periods was examined. In this context, examples of traditional and modern mosques built in different periods were discussed with the comparative analysis method. By examining how the classical, iconic elements of mosque architecture were handled in a modern style, their changes in terms of materials and construction techniques were questioned. As a result, it is aimed to be a reference for future studies by looking at the architectural variations of changing religious buildings from past to present.

A question of autonomy: the Islamic-conservative cultural sphere in Turkey

ABSTRACT The Islamic-conservative cultural sphere in Turkey has rapidly expanded during the 20-year rule of Erdoğan’s Justice and Development Party. Despite popular debates regarding the rise of ‘conservative art’, academic studies have thus far limited their focus to the cultural policies and actions of the ruling power. Consequently, our understanding of cultural producers within this expanding sphere, their aesthetic viewpoints and their position within the broader cultural field remains limited. To address this gap, we employ Bourdieu’s field theory and explore the dynamics of this cultural sphere by conducting in-depth interviews with artists and cultural intermediaries active within Islamic/Islamist art circles. Our findings suggest that the sphere is relatively autonomous from the broader cultural field, characterized by its closed-circuit production and circulation network, specific forms of capital, and exclusive ties to the realm of power. However due to its own tensions and fragmentations, this autonomous sphere does not function as a monolithic bloc of Islamic/conservative forces struggling for legitimacy against an established secularist/Kemalist/leftist bloc, as has been often presumed throughout Turkish history. Our discussion also contributes to the broader Bourdieusian literature by questioning the utility of concepts such as ‘field’ and ‘pillars’ in comprehending contexts with emerging Islamic/conservative cultural sphere.

The Leadership of Behice Boran in the Turkish Workers’ Party (October 1, 1970 - October 10, 1987) (A Historical Study)

Behice boran was the first Turkish woman to lead a political party in Turkey. Throughout her political career, she witnessed three military coups in Turkey and had different reactions to each. The year 1960 marked the actual beginning of Boran’s political journey and was also a pivotal point in Turkish history as it saw the first military coup, which allowed the formation of parties and labor unions. This led to her becoming the leader of the Turkish Workers’ Party in 1970. However, the party faced a setback following the second military coup in 1971, which differed politically from the first due to the presence of the right-wing on the political scene, restricting the leftist movement. Boran was arrested for the third time during the period (1971-1974), and she criticized this coup. She was released from prison in 1974 and managed to re-establish the party in 1975, but it was closed again following the third military coup in 1980, leading to her fourth arrest. Due to her deteriorating health, she was released and decided to leave Turkey, seeking political asylum in Belgium, where she remained in exile until her death in 1987 after spending seven years in exile.

Evaluation of Camel Wrestling in Türkiye in terms of Ethics and Animal Protection Legalisation

It was aimed to investigate the legal competence of camel wrestling, which has a long history in Turkey, with the Animal Protection Law No. 5199 and the Regulation of the Camel Wrestling Federation, which was established by camel breeders and organized wrestling. Among the findings; The data of the survey conducted with camel breeders in Aydın, İzmir and Muğla provinces of Turkey, where camel wrestling is widely practiced, are included. The data obtained in the analysis of the questionnaire made on the basis of verbal and volunteerism with 35 camel riders whose camels participated in these wrestling; are presented in tables as means, frequency distribution and percentages. To the question "What is your reason for participating in camel wrestling?"; Answers 45.7% cultural heritage, 31.4% entertainment and 22.9% tradition has been given. Again, “Are animals treated in accordance with animal rights in camel wrestling?” While 74.3% answered “Yes” to the question, it was seen that the answer was “I don't know” with 25.7%. The legal status of this event has been evaluated by comparing it with similar animal competitions & fights in the world. The subject was interpreted holistically within the framework determined by the Animal Rights Law No. 5199, which is in force in Turkey, and in the perspective of animal ethics. It has been concluded that the use of animals as shows, festivals, culture, tradition and folkloric doesn't directly overlap with the "the principle of beneficialness", of the ethical principles, and a special regulation is needed in the laws.

Studies On Spiritual Values Affecting The National Struggle

The Turkish War of Independence, in a critical phase of Turkish history, was fought between the oppressors and the oppressed, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the savior of the Turkish nation, who wanted to be oppressed and enslaved, to many oppressed nations with their own unique aspects, who would later follow the path of freedom and independence. , is the war of freedom and independence, which presented a third alternative example and showed the way to rebel against the oppressors. As a matter of fact, the most valuable work of the national struggle waged by the Turkish nation with the spirit of unity and solidarity throughout history is undoubtedly the Republic of Turkey. Until now, numerous studies have been conducted on the Turkish War of Independence and the guiding leader of this War, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. These studies can be classified in different ways. For example, in some cases, emotional elements predominate, while in others, there are issues that drag the event completely or partially into the same direction. While some of them can be considered insufficient in terms of resources, others have to be overcome with new studies due to the various sources and information that have emerged over the years. In this study, the problems that arose during the War of Independence and the situation of the Turkish people in their struggle for independence are discussed.

Emergence of chambers in the Turkish history: the case of Dersaadet Chamber of Commerce (DCC) as a public-agent meta-organization, 1882–1929

Purpose Building on previous historical works, this study aims to develop a framework to represent chambers as meta-organizations and present the case of Dersaadet Chamber of Commerce (DCC), based on this framework, during its emergence and evolution in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Design/methodology/approach In the study, a historical narrative was constructed from primary and secondary data. To complement data collected from the archives a systematic content analysis was used to explore the discourse of the chamber within its serial magazine. Findings It was found that the first chamber of the Ottoman Empire, DCC, was established according to the public law model as an extension of the economic context and the guild order, and it was observed that it increasingly conformed to this model between 1882 and 1929. Originality/value In this study, chamber models are examined for the first time according to the designated features of meta-organizational forms, built on the historical work on chambers. The case of DCC suggested that it adopted a public law model and displayed much continuity, even when significant transitions were observed during the modernization process from Ottoman Empire to Turkish Republic.

Religion in Turkish Historical Novels

Religion, which occupies a significant place in human life since the beginning of civilization, over time has become an integral part of our lives. Therefore, researchers emphasize that the history of religion is as old as the history of humanity. The need for religion arose from the spiritual needs of people. Religion is one of the main elements among the moral values of a nation, and it has great power in ensuring unity and equality. Religion is one of the main forces that hold people living in a country together. The goal of religion and the state is the same. Both are there to create order, to educate moral and honest people. Both religion and the state derive their power from the nation, the people, and those who believe in it. As a source of motivation for society religion has a special role in the life of states and nations. Especially for Turkic communities it can be clearly observed from the examples of literature that religion and clergy played an important role in the creation of the state, guarding unity, equality and social justice. Present research deals with the role of religion in the creation of the state, the place of religion in society and the attitude towards clergy reflected in the historical novels written after the second half of the 20th century in the Turkish literature on the history of the establishment of the Ottoman state.

Between ‘Cultural richness’ and ‘useful enemy’: the securitization and instrumentalization of Christians in Turkey

ABSTRACT This article employs interviews and primary and secondary sources to examine the discrimination, securitization, and instrumentalization faced by four main Christian denominations throughout Turkish history: the Armenian, Greek, Assyrian, and Protestant communities. We shed light on how some religious minority groups have been utilized and represented within the framework of Turkish diplomacy and the pursuit of neo-Ottomanism. We contend that the blanket term ‘Christian’ is less applicable in Turkey's context, where religion becomes intricately intertwined with ethnicity. Thus, it becomes imperative to investigate each non-Muslim community independently, considering their unique trajectories, historical traumas, internal divisions, and relationships with the state.

The Formation of Literary Canons in History of Turkish Literature

The term ‘canon’ is derived from the Greek word ‘kanon’, which refers to a law, criterion, or rule. It implies a criterion for determining what is true or authentic. In the context of literature, the concept of canon is associated with works that serve as examples or criteria for subsequent literary works, and that can become classical masterpieces. The canonization of art typically occurs in two ways. The first occurs through the natural process of people appreciating certain works, leading them to become classics. The second occurs in a ‘guided (goal oriented)’ manner in which certain authorities, such as political parties, governments, or ideologies, shape the canon to serve their interests. It is observed that many countries use literature and art as cultural tools to promote the national identity and ideology to individuals and society, viewing them as a means of cultural control. The inception of contemporary Turkish literature can be traced back to the 'Tanzimat Edict' of 1839, which sought to revitalize various areas, including literature, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire. With the conclusion of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire came to an end and the Turkish Republic was established. During the war years spanning 1911 to 1923, national sentiments and ideas became prominent themes in Turkish literature. Upon the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, national sentiments and specific ideas continued to exert their influence on the country's literature due to the prevalent awareness of Turkish identity that many felt needed to be instilled in society. The works produced by authors for this purpose are considered as part of the national literature. The newly established state aimed to adopt contemporary norms and, in this context, introduced reforms in every sphere of Turkish life. Literature was utilized as a tool to encourage public acceptance of these reforms, and the literature produced for this purpose was referred to as ‘revolution literature’. When examining the history of Modern Turkish Literature, one can observe literary works that fit within the framework of a ‘national literature canon’ or ‘revolution canon’. These works aim to present new values, ideas, and understandings to society by devaluing or criticizing old ones. This process of guided transformation is also known as ‘dirigisme’. Throughout history in Turkey, various groups (Kemalists, Marxists, nationalists, Islamists) have created ‘guided literature’ to teach or persuade others to adopt their ideologies. Poets and writers who were constrained by the political regimes, ideologies, and dominant powers of their time often reacted through an ‘anti-canon’ or ‘dissent canon’ strategy, resisting the official canon that political powers sought to establish. As a result, literature and art placed increasing importance on irony in language and expression. Utopias were also explored in ‘dissent canonical texts’ as a means of escaping from the unhappy present world. Keywords: Literature, Art, Canon, Dirigism, Guidance

A Report to the Ottoman Court about the Russian Army and Navy in the 1730s–1740s.

Since the beginning of the 18th century contradictions in Russian-Turkish relations were becoming more acute; the number and intensity of military conflicts between the two states was noticeably increasing, and their results were becoming more and more unsuccessful for the Ottoman Empire. In this regard, the Sultan’s government preparing for combat operations, had a growing need for information about the state of the Russian troops. One of the channels for obtaining such information were European diplomats who sought to use the weakening Turkish military machine to promote political interests of their own countries. This article deals with the report acquired by the Ottomans, which had been compiled by Woldemar von Löwendahl, a European military commander, lieutenant general of the Russian army in 1735–1743, and later (1747) Marshal of France. The text of the report, which according to its title, had been received from a Swedish ambassador, was translated into Ottoman-Turkish and placed in the document miscellany presumably compiled by the 18th century Ottoman financial official Kesbî (d. after 1798). Kesbî, the author of the historiographical work “İbretnümâyı Devlet” (“Edification of the State”), was at one time engaged in the work connected with preparation for the Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774. The analysis of the mentioned events and dates allowed us to assume that the document was translated into Ottoman-Turkish in 1763. By that time, its information had already lost relevance. However, it could still give the Ottoman military command the idea of the organization and actions of the Russian army and navy during the war of 1735–1739. From academic point of view, the text is interesting as a source on the history of Turkey’s international relations as well as on the history of the Russian armed forces. In addition, its very presence among Kesbî’s documents is important for describing the personality of this Ottoman official and historiographer.

8th Grade 'Common Turkish History' book analysis of topics-I

8th Grade 'Common Turkish History' book analysis of topics-I

8th grade 'Common Turkish history' book analysis of topics-I

8th grade 'Common Turkish history' book analysis of topics-I

ORDOS BÖLGESİNİN TÜRK TARİHİNDEKİ ÖNEMİ

Bozkırda büyük bir devlet kuran Hunlar, Mete zamanında güçlenip Ordos ve çevresinde, kuzeyde Yin dağlarında M.Ö. 3.Yy.’da mevcudiyetlerini sürdürmekteydiler. Verimli Lös topraklarını içinde barındıran Ordos platosu konar-göçer Hun halkı için daima cazibe merkezi olmuştur. Ordos bulunduğu konum itibari ile siyasi ve ekonomik önemini yüzyıllar boyu sürdürmüş ve Hunların zamanında önemli merkezlerden biri haline gelmiştir. Bu stratejik bölgeye sahip olmak için özellikle Türkler ve Çinliler arasında tarihî süregelen savaşlar olmuştur. Ayrıca bölgede Ordos Bronzları olarak adlandırılan pek çok obje bulunmuş ve bulunan objelerin Hunlar’a ait olmasıyla bölgenin önemi daha da artmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı tarihte stratejik, ekonomik ve aynı zamanda kültürel öneme sahip Ordos bölgesinin Türklerin nazarında öneminin ortaya koyulmasıdır. Bu konuda yapılan araştırmalar hem yerel hem de Batı ve Doğu tarihçileri tarafından yapılmıştır. Kaynak araştırmaları ve arkeolojik buluntular sonucunda Çin’in kuzeyinde İç Moğolistan’da yer alan Ordos’un, Türklerin tarihi açısından siyasi, iktisadi ve kültürel önemi belirlenmiştir.

Analysis of Füruzan Hüsrev Tökin's Book Titled “Political Parties and the Development of Political Thought in Turkish History 1839-1965”

Türkiye’de Cumhuriyetten sonra yetişen kuşakların siyasal-toplumsal hayattaki değişimleri araştırıp öğrenmesi ve değerlendirmesinde Füruzan Hüsrev Tökin ve tarih yazımında ona benzer analiz yöntemi ve yazım dili kullanan yazarların eserlerinin büyük ölçüde alana hakim olduğu bilinmektedir. Kritik düşüncenin ve eleştirel geleneğin yerleşmediği ülkemizde bu ve benzeri yazarlar Türk aydınının ve az çok okuyup yazan ortalama insanların fikrî ve zihinsel dünyasının şekillenmesinde çok etkili olmuşlardır. İncelenen kitap, bu etkililiğinden dolayı üzerinde durulmayı ve kritiğinin yapılmasını hak etmektedir. Bu çalışmada yakın tarih yazımı ile ilgili yapılan bazı yanlışlara dikkat çekilmektedir. Yakın Türk siyasî tarihi ile ilgili yazılan çok sayıda kitaptan Tökin’in ‘Türk Tarihinde Siyasî Partiler ve Siyasî Düşüncenin Gelişmesi 1839-1965’ adlı kitabı ele alınarak incelenmiştir. Çalışmada ulaşılan sonuçlardan bazıları bilimsellik, gerçekçilik ve kaynaklara dayalı yazım yerine propagandaya dayalı, tek yanlı ve kaynaklardan kopuk yazım yöntemi izlenmesidir. Yakın tarih ile ilgili kitapların çoğunda da söz konusu kitapta izlenen yöntem izlenmekte ve benzer mantık örgüsü kullanılmaktadır.

Problems Regarding History Teaching Reflected in Turkish History Institution Congresses

Tarih, milletlerin geçmişteki varlığını gelecek nesillere aktarmada önemli bir görev üstlenmektedir. Milletlerin zaman içindeki gelişme yönünü belirleyen, bireyin kendi toplumu ile bütünleşmesini sağlayan ve ondaki toplum şuurunu canlı tutan bir kültür hazinesidir. Tarihin bu özelliği onu her dönem Türkiye’de yakından ilgilenilen bir tartışma konusu haline getirmiştir. Cumhuriyetin kuruluşuyla birlikte tarihin nasıl öğretileceği Türk aydınları arasında tartışma konusu olmuş ve bu tartışmaların sonucunda Atatürk’ün talimatıyla Türk Tarih Kurumu kurulmuştur. Türk Tarih Kurumu kuruluşundan itibaren arkeolojik kazılar yapmak, kitaplar hazırlamak ve belirli aralıklarla konferanslar düzenlemek suretiyle Türk tarihini bilimsel gerçekler çerçevesinde anlatmaya çalışmıştır. Kurumun düzenlemiş olduğu kongrelerde özellikle Türk tarihinin nasıl öğretileceği ve Türkiye’de tarih öğretimindeki sorunlar önemli bir yer teşkil etmiştir. Bu çalışmada Türk Tarih Kurumunun kuruluşundan günümüze kadar düzenlemiş olduğu kongrelerde sunulan tebliğler çerçevesinde Türkiye’de tarih öğretimindeki sorunları ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır. Doküman analizine dayalı bu araştırmanın kaynaklarını Türk Tarih Kongrelerinde sunulan tebliğler oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmada elde edilen veriler içerik analizi tekniğiyle çözümlenerek temalar ve alt temalar oluşturulmuştur. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre; Türkiye’de tarih öğretiminde sorunlara yönelik olarak belli dönem ve konulara ağırlık verilmesi, metodoloji sorunu, inkılâp tarihinin öğretimindeki yetersizlikler, tarihsel gerçeklik sorunu, sarmallıktan yoksunluk, tarih yazımından kaynaklanan sorunlar, tarih ders kitaplarında dil sorunu, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğinden yoksunluk olmak üzere 8 tema ve bunlara bağlı batı perspektifinde tarih yazımı, siyasi tarih ağırlıklı tarih yazımı, siyasi tarih ve kültür tarihinin ayrı ele alınması, popüler tarihin yaygınlaşması, millî tarihe ait içeriklerin yetersizliği, dünya tarihine ait içeriklerin yetersizliği ve Osmanlı tarihinin mitoslarla tanımlanması olmak üzere 7 alt tema belirlenmiştir.

TURKEY AND GLOBAL LEADERSHIP: THE ROLE OF TURKISH PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN FOREIGN POLICY

The article analyzes the role of public diplomacy in Turkey's foreign policy. In connection with the stated problem, the concepts of "soft power" and public diplomacy, which are implemented by the ruling elite of Ankara to promote Turkish history, culture, language and values abroad, are examined. The authors examine various institutions of Turkish public diplomacy such as the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TİKA), the Disaster Management Authority (AFAD), the Yunus Emre Foundation, the Turkish Broadcasting Company (TRT), the Anadolu Agency (AA) and a number of others that promote an attractive image of the Republic of Turkey. The activities of the Ministry of Public Diplomacy are emphasized. It is emphasized that the establishment of this body was an important step in the formation of a new "identity" of the Republic of Turkey on the world stage. In turn, this ministry has systematized cooperation and coordination between state institutions and non-governmental organizations in their activities related to public diplomacy. The authors pay special attention to the national doctrine of "Zero Problems with Neighbours". Through concrete examples, Turkey's gradual increase of its political, diplomatic and humanitarian presence in the Middle East region is demonstrated, applying soft power strategy in such a way as to ensure its role as a mediator in resolving the region's problems. It is noted that in addition to the aforementioned region, Turkey seeks co-operation with the EU, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and more recently with African countries. The authors conclude that public diplomacy plays an important role in Turkey's foreign policy. In particular, Turkey will continue its course of expanding its foreign policy influence in the coming years. This fact in the future will lead to the formation of a new political bloc in the international arena, which will entail a new balance of power and lead to the formation of a "world that is bigger than five".