Tuber Aestivum Research Articles

Analysis of Mycorrhization Trends and Undesired Fungi Species in Three- and Six-Year-Old Tuber aestivum Plantations in Hungary.

Tuber aestivum is a key truffle species with significant ecological and economic value. Despite its importance, plantation success can be influenced by soil pH, host plants, and undesired fungi. This study examines how soil pH and host plants influence mycorrhization trends in T. aestivum plantations across six plant species in eight Hungarian settlements, using root sampling and DNA analysis to assess plantations at three and six years of age. Tuber aestivum achieved over 30% mycorrhization, with Carpinus betulus showing the highest levels. DNA analysis identified eight undesired mycorrhizal fungi, with Suillus spp. (42.9%) and Scleroderma spp. (31.4%) being the most prevalent. The study found that T. aestivum preferred a soil pH of around 7.6, while undesired fungi thrived in slightly acidic conditions. Additionally, soil pH significantly and positively influenced T. aestivum mycorrhization; however, factors such as plantation age also contributed to mycorrhization trends. While mycorrhization by undesired fungi decreased with higher soil pH, it increased as plantations matured from three to six years. These findings highlight the need for the effective management of soil pH and the control of undesired fungi to optimize T. aestivum mycorrhization, emphasizing the importance of targeted strategies and further research for sustainable truffle cultivation.

Comparative Study of Mechanical and Biological Pretreatment for Releasing Spores of Black Truffle Tuber aestivum

It is well known that the number of true truffles in the wild is decreasing. The aim of the study was to develop an effective, simple and affordable method of asci disruption to release black truffle spores. It was shown that the spore release can be achieved by different ways, such as mechanical or biological destruction. Mechanical homogenization of fruiting bodies using an immersion blender in tandem with a ball mill was shown to be effective and led to destruction of at least 85% of asci and release of spores. Also, the first approach we applied was the biological method of spore activation performed by African and grape snails. As a result of digestion of truffle fruiting bodies, the spores not only lost their protective shells, but also changed their morphology, which promoted their germination in vitro. The spores obtained using these two methods are capable of forming mycelial hyphae on nutrient media. The results of our study can be used to prepare inoculum of Tuber spp. and to obtain their pure cultures in agriculture.

Elaboration and Characterization of Novel Kombucha Drinks Based on Truffles (Tuber melanosporum and Tuber aestivum) with Interesting Aromatic and Compositional Profiles.

The organoleptic and bioactive properties of truffles place these fungi as interesting materials for use in the of design functional foods based on fruiting bodies outside commercial standards. Moreover, kombucha beverages have become more popular in the Western world, leading to novel drinks using alternative substrates instead of tea leaves. In this work, two truffle species (Tuber melanosporum, TMEL; Tuber aestivum, TAES) and three different symbiotic consortia of bacteria and yeasts (SCOBYs: SC1, SC2, and SC3) were tested. Fermentation (21 days) was monitored in terms of physicochemical (pH, viscosity), biochemical (total carbohydrates, alcohol, soluble proteins, phenolic compounds), and sensory attributes (volatile organic compounds, VOCs). The obtained pH ranges were adequate, alcohol levels were undetectable or very low, and sugar content was lower than in traditional kombuchas or other beverages. In most cases, the usual bottling time could be applied (7-10 days), although longer fermentations are recommended (14 days) to reach higher protein and phenolic compounds contents. Truffle kombuchas produced up to 51 volatile organic compounds (alcohols, acids, esters, ketones, and aldehydes, among others), with TMEL showing a more complex profile than TAES. During the first week, acidic compound production was observed, especially acetic acid. Similar behavior in the VOC profile was reported with different SCOBYs.

Evaluation of the Colonization of Plants from Five Quercus Taxa Native to Greece by Tuber aestivum (Ascomycota, Pezizales).

Fungi of the genus Tuber are famous for their hypogeous ascomata (truffles), many of which possess noteworthy organoleptic properties. T. aestivum shows a wide geographic distribution, has many plant symbionts and is well adapted to various climatic conditions. In this study, five Quercus taxa native to Greece (i.e., Q. coccifera, Q. ilex, Q. ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis, Q. pubescens and Q. trojana subsp. trojana) were inoculated with spore suspensions obtained from a single ascoma of T. aestivum. The fungal colonization of oak roots was evaluated at three, seven and 12 months after inoculation; the respective colonization rates for each time period were as follows: low to medium (17-41%) for Q. pubescens, Q. ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis and Q. trojana subsp. trojana, medium to relatively high (58-80%) for Q. ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis, Q. ilex, Q. pubescens and Q. trojana subsp. trojana, and medium to high (45-87%) for all oak species examined. Positive correlations were assessed between the number of colonized root tips and the total root tips number, but no significant differences were detected between the inoculated plants and the respective control as regards plant growth. The ectomycorrhizae formed by T. aestivum with Q. ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis and Q. trojana subsp. trojana are described for the first time. The outcome of the study evidences the feasibility of generating the seedlings of various indigenous oak species (covering a large range of diverse habitats) successfully inoculated with autochthonous truffles to be readily used for cultivation purposes.

Bacterial communities inhabiting the ascomata of the ectomycorrhizal summer truffle (Tuber aestivum)

This paper continues the studies on the role of bacteria in the environment of summer truffle (Tuber aestivum), focusing on ascomata at three sites in the Nida Basin (southern Poland). Bacterial taxa and the number of OTU sequences identified were determined based on analysis of peridium and gleba collected in 2017 and 2018. The aim of the presented work is to learn the structure of bacterial communities associated with the ascomata of the summer truffle T. aestivum forming in specific stands in south Poland and fine roots of surrounding trees. Sanger DNA sequencing, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) were used. NGS sequencing platforms short-read (300 bases) was selected, using a MiSeq Illumina. The Kruskall-Wallis test was used for alpha diversity analysis and the PERMANOVA test for beta diversity. Alpha and beta biodiversity analyzes were performed using various indices (Chao1, Simpson, Shannon, Faith's phylogenetic, observed OTUs, Heip's evenness measure - alpha diversity; UniFrac, Jaccard, Bray–Curtis - beta diversity).The Sanger method identified six bacterial taxa that were dominant in the community: Bacillus (86.7 %), Pseudomonas (51.5 %), Stenotrophomonas (15.5 %), Paenibacillus (7.9 %), Rhizobium (7.3 %), and Chryseobacterium (8.5 %). In contrast, NGS results showed the dominance (at OTUs >10,000) of taxa: Bradyrhizobiaceae, Sphingobacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae, Yersiniaceae, Sphingomonadaceae, Rhizobiaceae, Flavobacteriaceae, and Comamonadaceae. The PERMANOVA test for the Bray-Curtis and Jaccard indices showed dissimilarities between samples from two of the sites with respect to beta diversity. Significant differences were found in the bacterial communities colonizing the ascomata of T. aestivum and in the root communities with T. aestivum ectomycorrhizae the purpose of this study. The results obtained may be helpful in selecting and monitoring sites suitable for the formation of ascomata of T. aestivum.

FIRST REPORT ON TRUFFLE-INHABITING FUNGI AND METAGENOMIC COMMUNITIES OF TUBER AESTIVUM COLLECTED IN RUSSIA

Truffles are one of the least studied groups of fungi in terms of their biological and biotechnological aspects. This study aimed to isolate truffle-inhabiting fungi and assess the metagenomic communities of the most common Russian summer truffle, Tuber aestivum. This study is the first to characterize the biodiversity of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms living in the truffle T. aestivum using molecular analysis and sequencing. Plant pathogens involved in a symbiotic relationship with truffles were identified by sequencing the hypervariable fragments of the 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA genes. In addition, some strains of fungal symbionts and likely pathogens were isolated and recognized for the first time from the truffles. This study also compared and characterized the general diversity and distribution of microbial taxa of T. aestivum collected in Russia and Europe. The results revealed that the Russian and European truffle study materials demonstrated high similarity. In addition to the truffles, representatives of bacteria, fungi, and protists were found in the fruiting bodies. Many of these prokaryotic and eukaryotic species inhabiting truffles might influence them, help them form mycorrhizae with trees, and regulate biological processes. Thus, truffles are interesting and promising sources for modern biotechnological and agricultural studies.

Report of the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi: 24

SummaryAn addition to the list of names for protection under Art. F.2.1 from the Cordyceps Working Group, containing two names of genera, is approved. The following two family names are recommended for conservation: Physaraceae against Fuliginaceae; and Metschnikowiaceae against Nectaromycetaceae and Torulopsidaceae. The following six generic names are recommended for conservation: Blastomyces Gilchrist & W.R. Stokes against Blastomyces Costantin & Rolland; Cercospora with a conserved type; Didymium against Mucilago and Spumaria; Discula with a conserved type; Metschnikowia against Torulopsis; and Phyllopsora against Triclinum and Crocynia. The proposal concerning the gender of the genus Glomus is referred to the General Committee. The following 15 species names are recommended for conservation: Agaricus cingulatus (Tricholoma cingulatum) against A. ramentaceus; A. psammopus (Tricholoma psammopus) against A. concolor; Apioporthe corni (Aurantioporthe corni, Cryptodiaporthe corni) against Sphaeronaema aurantiacum and Myxosporium nitidum; Ditiola mucida (Holwaya mucida) against Acrospermum caliciiforme (Crinula caliciiformis); Entoloma sericeum against Agaricus pascuus (E. pascuum); Geoglossum uliginosum Hakelier against G. uliginosum (Pers.) P. Crouan & H. Crouan; Microsphaera alphitoides (Erysiphe alphitoides) with a conserved type; Peziza cinnamomea (Pezicula cinnamomea) against Naemaspora grisea; Phyllosticta yuccae against Leptodothiorella notabilis; Puccinia psidii (Austropuccinia psidii) against Caeoma eugeniarum and Uredo neurophila; Tolypocladium inflatum against Cordyceps subsessilis; Tricholoma sciodes against Agaricus hordus; Tuber aestivum Vittad. against T. aestivum (Wulfen) Spreng. and T. blotii; T. magnatum against T. griseum; and T. melanosporum against T. nigrum. The following two species names are recommended for rejection under Art. 56: Ramularia gibba and Tuber cibarium. Proposal 2307 (concerning Hypocrea lutea (Tode) Petch) is no longer relevant, following the removal in the Shenzhen Code (Turland & al. in Regnum Veg. 159. 2018) of Art. 57.2 of the Melbourne Code (McNeill & al. in Regnum Veg. 154. 2012). Proposal 2233 (to conserve Bipolaris against Cochliobolus) and four proposals concerning names in Trichoderma and Hypocrea (2305, 2306, 2308 and 2309) have been withdrawn because the names were included in a list for protection from an approved working group: for Bipolaris, the Dothideomycetes Working Group, and for Trichoderma, the International Subcommission on Trichoderma and Hypocrea. Three works by Paulet, the unpaginated “Index” of Traité des champignons and two editions of Tabula plantarum fungosarum, are recommended for suppression under Art. 34.

Habitat is more important than climate for structuring soil fungal communities associated in truffle sites

The ectomycorrhizal fungi Tuber melanosporum Vittad. and Tuber aestivum Vittad. produce highly valuable truffles, but little is known about the soil fungal communities associated with these truffle species in places where they co-occur. Here, we compared soil fungal communities present in wild and planted truffle sites, in which T. melanosporum and T. aestivum coexist, in Mediterranean and temperate regions over three sampling seasons spanning from 2018 to 2019. We showed that soil fungal community composition and ectomycorrhizal species composition are driven by habitat type rather than climate regions. Also, we observed the influence of soil pH, organic matter content and C:N ratio structuring total and ectomycorrhizal fungal assemblages. Soil fungal communities in wild sites revealed more compositional variability than those of plantations. Greater soil fungal diversity was found in temperate compared to Mediterranean sites when considering all fungal guilds. Ectomycorrhizal diversity was significantly higher in wild sites compared to plantations. Greater mould abundance at wild sites than those on plantation was observed while tree species and seasonal effects were not significant predictors in fungal community structure. Our results suggested a strong influence of both ecosystem age and management on the fungal taxa composition in truffle habitats.

Baicalein, a dietary flavonoid, enhances the insulin‐sensitizing effect of metformin to prevent type 2 diabetes via the regulation of lipid metabolism and gut microenvironment

AbstractBaicalein is a natural flavonoid abundant in various foods and dietary plants, including Tuber aestivum and Oroxylum indicum. In this study, we investigated the role of baicalein in enhancing the insulin‐sensitizing effect of metformin in mice with prediabetes. Baicalein, when combined with 25% of normal‐dose metformin, achieved a diabetes‐reversion rate of 80%, which was 1.86‐fold that of normal‐dose metformin. Mechanistically, baicalein enhanced the insulin‐sensitizing effect of metformin on lipid metabolism by inhibiting de novo lipogenesis through the AMP‐activated protein kinase/SREBP‐1c/FASN pathway and by inducing fatty‐acid β‐oxidation through the upregulation of ACSL1, CPT1A, EHHADH, and acyl‐CoA dehydrogenases (ACADL/ACADM/ACADS). Meanwhile, baicalein enhanced the insulin‐sensitizing effect of metformin via the modulation of the gut microenvironment by enriching probiotics, especially Akkermansia by 53.4‐fold, depleting opportunistic pathogens, and strengthening the intestinal barrier. The improved gut microenvironment led to the alleviation of chronic endotoxemia, as evidenced by decreased levels of lipopolysaccharide and proinflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, baicalein enhanced the effect of metformin on decreasing the circulating level of branched‐chain amino acids (BCAAs), which further improved insulin sensitivity by normalizing the mTORC1/p70S6K/IRS1 signaling pathway and de novo lipogenesis. Moreover, the role of baicalein in enhancing the insulin‐sensitizing effect of metformin was verified by an oleic acid‐induced steatosis model and a BCAA‐induced insulin resistance model in hepatocytes. Our study laid a theoretical foundation for developing baicalein into a dietary supplement for diabetes prevention. The diverse mechanisms of food‐derived flavonoids can be applied in the development of dietary supplements to enhance the efficacy of oral hyperglycemic agents currently used in clinics.

Niche construction by two ectomycorrhizal truffle species (Tuber aestivum and T. melanosporum)

Niche construction by biota has been frequently reported for animals and plants, but fungi have received less attention. For mycorrhizal fungi, mutualistic niche construction has been proposed where partners construct niches for each other. However, few eco-evolutionary mechanisms leading to mutualistic symbiotic feedback have been described. Here we report niche construction by two ectomycorrhiza-forming species of truffles, Tuber aestivum and T. melanosporum. The soils of 263 spots of these Tuber, which create bare patches (brûlés), have been monitored (9–10 years) in natural forests to analyze whether they meet the criteria to satisfy the mutualistic niche construction process. Soil habitat modification by these Tuber can be seen in their brûlés, where the vegetation of arbuscular mycorrhizal plants and soil organisms are largely suppressed. Tuber melanosporum brûlés were smaller more productive, and with lower vegetation cover than T. aestivum. Interactions among soil carbonates, pH, and brûlé size are associated with increased carpophore productivity, indicating positive feedback between habitat modification and fungal fitness. Both species modified the habitat differentially. Tuber aestivum brûlés had higher pH and lower total carbonate than soils outside. Tuber melanosporum brûlés had lower total carbonate and higher exchangeable Ca2+ and active carbonate than soils outside. In conclusion, brûlés show a mutualistic niche construction process because modifies their soil environment and increases the fitness of both Tuber spp. Enhanced carbonate weathering by truffles resulted in lower soil quality with a negative impact on plants, indicating that mutualistic niche construction does not equally benefit both partners.

Chemical composition of summer truffle (Tuber aestivum Vittad.) from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ascocarps of summer truffle (Tuber aestivum Vittad.) were found in natural oak and beech forests on calcareous soils, at altitude of 840–850 m, near the town of Šipovo in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), with the help of trained dogs.
 Until now, no one in B&H has researched the chemical composition of summer truffle. The aim of the work is to analyze nutritional value, elemental composition, and the assortment of fatty acids in the freshly collected ascocarps and to compare achieved results with the results from the literature related to the summer truffle ascocarps found in some other locations, then with the ascomata of other species of truffles, and with the fruiting bodies of some above-ground edible mushrooms.
 Chemical analysis showed that Tuber aestivum contains about 75.5 % water and about 25.5 % dry matter. The most common group of compounds were carbohydrates, followed by proteins, while the mineral component and fats were much less presented. Among analyzed elements, the most prevalent was potassium with an average concentration of 26,409 mg/kgDW and the least represented was lead with an average concentration of 0.45 mg/kgDW. The main part of the mineral spectrum consisted of three elements: K, P and Ca, with a share of 95.3 %. In ascocarps of summer truffle, 24 fatty acids were detected, of which 13 were saturated and 11 unsaturated. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids was 58.34 % to 41.66 %. The most common among saturated fatty acids was palmitic with a share of 25.89 %, while the most common unsaturated fatty acid was elaidic with a share of 28.17 %. No ingredients have been found in the fruiting bodies that would make them unfit for human consumption in any way

Investigation of Aroma Components of Tuber aestivum and Tuber borchii Collected From Different Location in Türkiye

Truffle is an important food source for wild animals and a significant part of the ecosystem, indicating a healthy forest. With their unique aromas, truffles are also a crucial food source for humans. The volatile substances released by Tuber not only appeal to our sense of smell but also contribute to various biological activities. Different aromas result in different tastes; therefore, aroma is essential in defining the organoleptic properties and quality of underground fungi. This research aims to investigate according to the percentage the chemical components considering the habitat and mycorrhizal host tree species of naturally occurring summer truffle Tuber aestivum Vittad. and white truffle Tuber borchii Vittad. in Southwest Anatolia and Marmara regions. For this purpose, the aroma components of T. aestivum and T. borchii collected from two different regions were analyzed using the HS-SPME-GC/MS system. Accordingly, a total of 59 different compounds (volatile organic compounds) were identified, including 20 compounds in T. aestivum from Muğla, 13 compounds in T. aestivum from Kırklareli, 44 compounds in T. borchii from Muğla, and 33 compounds in T. borchii from Kırklareli, belonging to different classes of compounds. While terpenes such as limonene (37.62%), p-cymene (4.79%), and β-pinene (4.12%) were major compounds in T. aestivum collected from Muğla, 2-octen-1-ol (46.78%), 1-octen-3-ol (40.44%), and 3-octanol (2.62%) predominantly constituted the aroma in T. aestivum from Kırklareli. The characteristic sulfur compounds commonly found in Tuber species were present in 42.19% of T. borchii collected from Kırklareli and 12.15% from Muğla. When comparing T. borchii grown in Kırklareli and Muğla, 3-methyl-4,5-dihydrothiophene (29.53% and 6.73%) p-methyl thiobenzaldehyde (2.75% and 5.42%), and methionine (9.91% in Kırklareli, not detected in Muğla) were found in different percentage rates. Based on the data obtained in this study, the classification of both Tuber species, with respect to their geographical origin, was determined using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Accordingly, it is show that of the aroma of Tuber species of the chemical components and the aroma components to the formation should be cultivated after optimizing the ecological conditions that contribute to the symbiotic life of the plant species they provide.

Using high-throughput sequencing to investigate summer truffle consumption by chipmunks in relation to retention forestry

Intensive management of forests for wood modifies forest biodiversity, affecting the composition of plant and animal communities as well as microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) form mutualistic relationships with trees, but there is evidence that the abundance and diversity of EMF declines under intensive forest management. The dispersal of some EMF, including that of truffles, depends on small mammals consuming their fruiting bodies and dispersing spores through feces. To better understand provisioning of this ecosystem service within intensively managed forests, we applied high-throughput, DNA amplicon sequencing to scat collected from Townsend’s chipmunks (Neotamias townsendii) inhabiting retention patches in recently clearcut-conifer stands. Across two summers, we collected 165 chipmunk scat samples from 43 clearcut-conifer stands in the Pacific Northwest (USA). We identified 81 truffle species representing 16 families, which included many rare and uncommon taxa. Retention patch sizes varied from 9 to 222 trees (0.002–0.83 ha) but we did not detect an effect of retention patch size on the richness of truffles in chipmunk scat samples. However, truffle richness was slightly higher in scat samples collected from chipmunks in retention patches compared to individuals sampled in adjacent clearcuts. Furthermore, the abundance of certain truffle species in chipmunk scat varied in relation to retention patch size and location (riparian or upland), suggesting retention forestry practices may influence truffle community composition. Throughout the sampling season, we detected a 44% decline in truffle species richness and a significant reduction in abundance (i.e., sequence reads) for > 50% of common truffle taxa. Our application of high-throughput sequencing of scat effectively captured variation in truffle species consumption by chipmunks. Our results confirm that common small mammals play an important role in the dispersal of EMF across recently logged forests (<8 years since harvest) and indicate that retaining relatively small (∼10 tree) green-tree patches may promote truffle dispersal by providing small mammal habitat.

Volatile Compound Profiling of Seven Tuber Species Using HS-SPME-GC-MS and Classification by a Chemometric Approach.

Edible mushrooms are important providers of nutrients and are well recognized for their particular organoleptic properties. The volatiles that Tuber releases serve purposes beyond simply appealing to our sense of smell. Truffles have different smells and tastes due to the fact that they contain different volatile components; therefore, aroma is essential in defining the organoleptic properties and quality of truffles. In this research, seven Tuber species, namely, Tuber ferrugineum, Tuber nitidum, Tuber excavatum, Tuber rufum, Tuber puberulum, Tuber aestivum, and Tuber borchii were selected. The primary objective of this study was to carry out the first in-depth investigation of the volatile compounds and chemometric analysis of seven truffle species from the Tuber genus that are grown in Turkey. The SPME headspace combined with GC-MS analysis identified 60 volatiles from different classes, with the abundance of terpenes being followed in a decreasing order by alcohols, aldehydes, sulfides, ketones, and other aromatic compounds. According to the chemometric analysis, methional, 3-methyl-4,5-dihydrothiophene, p-(methylthio) benzaldehyde, 3-octene, linalyl acetate, methyl caproate, and β-trans-ocimene could be highlighted as markers for T. borchii grown in Turkey. This investigation was conducted for the first time using T. ferrugineum, T. puberulum, and T. nitidum. The comparison of the volatile profile of these tubers' species displayed branded differences. Thus, the knowledge gained from this research may pave the way to identify the key aroma contributors in the chosen Tuber species.

The effect of fresh or frozen black truffle Tuber aestivum on ripening and sensory quality of semi hard cheese

The use of truffles in food is primarily based on their pleasant smell to the consumer, to achieve this effect, artificial flavours are usually added. Considering that truffles have not only a hedonistic effect on consumers, this work aims to investigate the characteristics of semi hard cheese, using fresh or for three months frozen truffles without adding artificial flavours, as well as their influence on proteolytic changes during ripening and the sensory quality. Six experimental Gouda type cheeses were prepared: control without truffles; with fresh truffles sterilized in autoclave; with fresh truffles flambéed on burner; with frozen truffles sterilized in autoclave; with frozen truffles flambéed on burner; with addition of artificial flavoring agents. The chemical composition and proteolytic changes of the cheese, microbiological status and sensory evaluation during the three months of ripening were studied. The chemical composition did not differ significantly, but truffles significantly affect the biochemical processes of cheeses ripening. Addition of flambéed fresh or frozen truffles in cheeses, accelerate ripening processes, where the ripening index (25.03%–25.16%) was significantly higher in these cheeses than in the others (14.25%–15.81%). A 1 log unit higher number of lactic acid bacteria was also found in these cheeses and their sensory quality were excellent with ratings 98.08% and 95.41% of the maximum possible quality. It was shown that addition of flambéed fresh or frozen truffles, can be used, resulting in a completely natural cheese with pleasant odor, without the addition of artificial flavours.

Nutritional analysis of some wild collected macrofungi from Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India

There is worldwide need for alternative source of high quality and protein rich food components which control food insecurity and malnutrition. Due to the nutritional importance, macrofungi (mushrooms) are utilized and consumed frequently by villagers of Ayodhya district, India. In this district the nutritional value of reported macrofungi has been not studied. In current study, eight selective wild macrofungal samples were collected from different sites of study area such as Macrolepiota procera, Tuber aestivum, Auricularia auricula-judae, Hygrocybe eburneus and Ganoderma leucidum. The sample was prepared for nutritional analysis and their nutrient composition has been analyzed as findings result. Nutritionally the protein, carbohydrate, lipid, fibre, and ash content were analyzed and ranged from 21.14 – 36.32%, 11.70 – 60.90%, 0.96 – 3.25%, 4.32 – 41.13% and 3.91 – 10.92% respectively. The overall nutrient showed that all collected (selected) macrofungi contains rich protein and carbohydrate content with low lipid (fat) content. The present study expresses and revel the nutritional component as useful awareness to minimize malnutrition for peoples as well as society.

Updating Ecology and Distribution of Wild Truffles in Morocco

The distribution and abundance of the various truffle species are influenced by the climate, soil, and vegetation conditions. The setting of these characteristics is necessary for the potential species’ cultivation. Here, we describe the ecological characteristics of Moroccan truffles and desert truffles and their associations with host plants. We also determine the climate and soil parameters relating to the geographic distribution and fructification of truffles and desert truffles. In contrast to truffles, which are found in sub-humid environments, desert truffles are found in semi-arid and arid regions of Morocco. The dissemination of desert truffles in the Mamora forest and oriental regions of Morocco is typically linked to the presence of Helianthemum sp., whereas the existence of truffles (Tuber spp.) in the Middle Atlas depends on the subsistence of Quercus ilex and Q. faginea. The truffles’ and desert truffles’ fructification depends mainly on the precipitation frequency. Terfezia arenaria and Tuber oligospermum, the two major desert truffles of Mamora forest, require an annual rainfall of 435 mm on average in slightly acidic soil. While the oriental and Highland desert truffles, namely Terfezia boudieri, T. claveryi, and Tirmania spp., require an annual precipitation average of 123 to 267 mm and a high CaCO3 content. Otherwise, there is Tuber aestivum, localized in humid regions with a rainfall rate of more than 650 mm, and found under calcareous soil rich in organic matter with the presence of potential host plants, such as oaks, cedars, and pines. Our findings open up the possibility of successful cultivation of truffles and desert truffles having an economic interest through understanding their ecological requirements in Morocco.

Truffle flavored commercial products veracity and sensory analysis from truffle and non-truffle consumers

The price of the truffle species Tuber melanosporum and Tuber magnatum can be up to fifty times higher, or even more, than the cheapest edible truffle species due to their appreciated aroma and low production levels. This aroma is seriously affected after the application of treatments for the conservation of food products, usually thermal (freezing or sterilization). Hence, many of the truffled products that are retailed are characterized by the use of truffle species of low economic value and the addition of flavoring substances. Most of the time, the added flavorings do not mimic fresh truffle aroma and do not correspond to the truffle species appearing in the ingredients list and the statement of identity. These products sometimes include pictures of truffles or the term ‘white or black truffle’ in the label, which might confuse the consumer. To study this practice in the food industry, 51 products were evaluated through instrumental techniques determining truffle species presence by microscopy and molecular techniques, as well as the level of truffle flavorings added by HS-GC-MS analysis and by sensory perception scale. Finally, a sensory analysis of eight products was carried out by consumers distributed into two groups, those who had previously tasted fresh truffles and those who had not. Lower-value truffle species such as Tuber aestivum and Tuber indicum were frequently found in products in which the labeling did not indicate so. Also, 48% of the products contained high levels of added flavorings. In the sensory analysis, non-consumers of truffles rated flavored products more positively (up to 2 more points in some products) than truffle consumers. Also, this group associated negative attributes (weird and disappointing) to products elaborated with real black truffle, whereas truffle consumers associated positive attributes (truffle flavor, truffle smell and gourmet) to them. • 51 truffled products were tested to detect frauds. • Only 20% of truffled products were correctly labelled. • The combination of analysis allows detect which truffle specie is added. • Truffle consumers endowed truffle flavor, truffle smell and gourmet to products. • Negatives attributes were related with fresh-truffle products by some consumers.

Evaluation of Pecan [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch] Cultivars for Possible Cultivation for Both Fruit and Truffle Production in the Puglia Region, Southeastern Italy

Yield and different nut parameters were measured for two growing seasons on mature (28–29 years) trees of 11 pecan cultivars grown in an experimental orchard located in the Puglia Region, Southeastern Italy. ‘Shoshoni’ and ‘Shawnee’ pecan seedlings were inoculated with three truffle species (Tuber borchii—known as the ‘whitish truffle’, T. aestivum—called the ‘summer truffle’, and T. melanosporum—the common ‘Black truffle’) and investigated for six months. The level of ectomycorrhizal colonization was assessed 6 and 12 months after inoculation. Results indicated that ‘Wichita’, ‘Shoshoni’, and ‘Pawnee’ performed well in the pedoclimatic conditions of the area with a yield higher than 20 kg/tree and a kernel dry weight of ≅3 g. These preliminary yield results suggested that some pecan cultivars could deserve consideration for cultivation in the Puglia Region, whereas others with low yield and a stronger alternate bearing should not be considered. Plant height, number of leaves, chlorophyll content (expressed as a SPAD unit) and stem diameter partially indicated the increase in ecological fitness in truffles-inoculated plants. Successful mycorrhization indicated ‘Shoshoni’ and ‘Shawnee’ as suitable to establish ectomycorrhizal symbiosis with T. aestivum, T. borchii, and T. melanosporum cultivation under Puglia climatic conditions. The results also showed that the applied protocol was adequate to obtain healthy mycorrhized seedlings appropriate for commercialization and plantation for truffles production on pecan in the future.

The importance of botanic gardens for global change research—New insights into Cambridge's hidden truffle kingdom

Social Impact StatementBotanic gardens offer unique opportunities for unravelling responses of plant life to climate change. Despite investigations into their aboveground sphere, the belowground realm is usually neglected. Cambridge University Botanic Garden now illuminates the hidden world of one of the most sought‐after culinary delicacies—the Burgundy truffle. The garden's plant diversity, the serendipity of a truffle dog, and our curiosity‐driven research agenda reveal insights into 278 truffle fruitbodies that grew symbiotically with an unusually high number of host species. Our study reinforces the power of botanic gardens to disentangle ecosystem processes and emphasizes the proximity of scientific and public interests in truffles.