Tubewell Water Research Articles

Unraveling the impact of high arsenic, fluoride and microbial population in community tubewell water around coal mines in a semiarid region: Insight from health hazards, and geographic information systems

High arsenic (As), fluoride (F-), and microbial pathogens coexist in semiarid conditions afflicting > 240 million people worldwide including Pakistan. Groundwater quality has declined due to geogenic and manmade activities providing suitable ground for ubiquity, bioavailability, and toxicity of contaminants. We tested the health hazard, distribution, and apportionment of As, F-, and microbes in groundwater around coal mines in Quetta, Pakistan. The range of As, and F- concentrations in groundwater were 0.2–16.6 µg/L, 0.4–18.5 mg/L. Both, As and F- correlate with high HCO3-, pH, Na+, SO42-, Fe, and Mn, and negatively with Ca2+ water. The coalfield showed many folds higher As 15.8–28.5 µg/L, and F- 10.8–34.5 mg/L compared to groundwater-wells. Geochemical phases revealed saturation of groundwater with calcite, dolomite, fluorite, gypsum, and undersaturation with halite-mirabilite, and arsenopyrite minerals. The positive matrix factorization (PMF) model assessed five-factor solutions: geogenic, industrial, coal mining, sulfide & fluoride-bearing mineral-dissolution, and agriculture pollution delivered As, F-, and microbial contamination. About 24.6 % and 64.4 % of groundwater samples exceeded the WHO guidelines of As 10 µg/L, F- 1.5 mg/L. The carcinogenicity, and non-carcinogenicity of As, and F- were higher in children than adults. Therefore, health hazards in children are of great concern in achieving sustainable management goals.

Validating a portable device for groundwater iron measurement in Bangladesh

The mineral iron is essential for health at an optimum level. In Bangladesh iron is obtained from the drinking source groundwater, attributing largely to the good iron status in population. This groundwater iron poses two scenarios—predominantly high in many areas and predominantly low in other areas. Despite good iron status, burden of anemia in population is high. To control anemia, iron supplementation programs are operational against the backdrop of high iron status. This often leads to iron-associated side effects, plausibly due to excess iron, especially among the individuals exposed to high amount of iron from the drinking water. This geological phenomenon warrants the supplementation program to deliver different doses depending on the groundwater iron level. To enable that, the country needs an area-representative “mapping” of groundwater iron. However, such a mapping using the gold standard laboratory methods is expensive and logistically intensive. The aim of the study is to validate Handheld Colorimeter (HI721 Checker® HC), a portable device (“spot kit” device) to measure iron concentration in the drinking groundwater. The study was carried out in the rural Belkuchi upazila of the Sirajganj district in the Rajshahi division. In the study 25 tubewells were selected and categorized into five groups. Among them, four were categorized based on their iron concentration, low iron conc. (0-<1 mg/L), medium iron conc. (1-2 mg/L), high iron conc. (2-10 mg/L), very high iron conc. (>10 mg/L). One additional group was included for tubewell water that was used after filtering. The study compared the iron estimates measured in groundwater samples of the selected tube wells by the spot kit device and the same samples measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). There was a high agreement between the estimates by the spot kit and AAS (Kappa coefficient= 0.72, p <0.001; Lin’s concordance = 0.829, p < 0.001). Pitman's test of difference in variance exhibited that the two methods produced equally precise results (r=0.227, p=0.275). The study concluded that the Handheld Colorimeter (HI721 Checker® HC) was valid to measure the iron concentration of groundwater under field conditions. This device can facilitate testing processes, particularly in remote or resource-constrained areas where sophisticated testing methods (i.e: AAS) are unavailable and thus may help the re-design of the anemia control program in settings like Bangladesh with high and variable level of iron in the drinking groundwater.

Effects of water quality and nitrogen on wheat productivity: Experimental and modelling study using the SALTMED model

AbstractThe effects of different water qualities and nitrogen doses need to be investigated for wheat growth to determine the optimal management strategy for sustaining wheat production potential to ensure human food security. Therefore, a 2‐year study (2020–2021 to 2021–2022) was conducted on wheat irrigated with different water qualities, including canal water (Ca), tubewell water (Tu) and mixed Ca‐Tu water (Mx), each fertilized with two nitrogen doses, that is, N75 = 75 kgN.ha−1 and N100 = 100 kgN.ha−1. Ca⨯N100 performed best, with 5.12 t.ha−1 grain yield, 11.60 t.ha−1 biomass, 102.83 cm plant height and 1.32 kg.m−3 water productivity. The best values of the root mean square error (RMSE), normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and coefficient of residual mass (CRM) were 0.11, 0.12, 0.93 and −0.004, respectively, for calibration and 0.13, 0.15, 0.87 and ±0.01, respectively, for validation of the SALTMED model. The scenario simulation was performed for additional levels of water salinity (electrical conductivity [EC] = 8 and 12 dS.m−1) and nitrogen doses (50, 125, 150 and 175 kgN.ha−1). The results revealed improvements in wheat grain yield of 107%, 16% and −6% at EC = 8 dS.m−1 and 125%, 31% and 5% at EC = 12 dS.m−1, while the improvements in biomass were 113%, 22% and −2% at EC = 8 dS.m−1 and 137%, 29% and 8% at EC = 12 dS.m−1 with increasing nitrogen doses from 50–125 kg.ha−1, 125–150 kg.ha−1 and 150–175 kg.ha−1, respectively. It is recommended that high‐quality water with the lowest possible EC and nitrogen applications of up to 150 kgN.ha−1 be adopted for wheat production in semi‐arid areas of Punjab, Pakistan.

Draft genome sequence of Achromobacter aegrifaciens BAW48 isolated from arsenic-contaminated tubewell water in Bangladesh.

We report the draft genome of Achromobacter aegrifaciens strain BAW48, a bacterium with a genome size of 6,877,653 bp. This genome comprises gene clusters for arsenic conversion, such as arsenic resistance (arsHCsO), arsenite oxidation (aioBA), and arsenate reduction (arsRCDAB), along with genes for heavy metal and antibiotic resistance.

The Impact of Saline Water on Women's Health in the Coastal Region of Bangladesh: Special Attention on Menstrual Hygiene Practices.

Introduction Salinity intrusion is the most common global concern along coastlines, but it can happen inland also. The lack of freshwater is the primary issue affecting the coastal areas. Many health problems are prevalent among the inhabitantsdue to their frequent use of salted water. The health of women living along the coastline is getting progressively compromised due to salinity intrusion. Objectives The study aims to determine menstrual health practices and other health problems faced bywomen in the coastal region of Bangladesh. Methods The study was conducted using a survey research designfrom May 2023 to October 2023 on rural women aged 18 to 45 years, who lived in the Bangladeshi village of Koyra Upazila in the Khulna district. Thesample size of the study was 101. Open- and closed-ended questions from a planned interview schedule were used to gather primary data. Additional information from appropriate sources, e.g., newspapers, publications, and books, was utilized to enhancethe comprehensiveness of statistical analysis and support rationality. A p-value of 0.05 was considered significant. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA version 15 (StataCorp LLC, College Station, TX). Results Menstrual hygiene practices showed a higher prevalence of using fabric rags and reusing them after rinsing them in salt water (72.3%) than sanitary pads (25.7%). It was observed that the risk of diarrhea among tubewell water and rainwaterusers was significantly lowered by 0.25 times (95% CI = 0.06, 0.99; p = 0.049) and 0.06 times (95% CI = 0.01, 0.43; p = 0.005), respectively, compared to pond water users. Conclusion Salinityhas a significant impact on the livelihoods and health of coastal women. The village womenare unaware of the health risks of excessive saline water use. Establishing an adequate supply of freshwater reservoirsfor the entire communitythroughout the yearis analternativefor womento use as a source of water for hygiene necessities.

Spatial distribution and hydrogeochemical evaluations of groundwater and its suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes in kaligonj upazila of satkhira district of Bangladesh

Groundwater is a significant water resource for drinking and irrigation in Satkhira district, Bangladesh. The depletion of groundwater resources and deterioration in its quality are the results of the confluence of factors such as industrialization, intensive irrigation, and rapid population growth. For this reason, this study focused on the evaluation of tubewell water of six unions of Kaligonj upazila in Satkhira district, which is situated in the coastal southwest part of Bangladesh. Major and trace elemental concentrations were assimilated into positive matrix factorization (PMF) to identify potential sources and their respective contributions. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that groundwater salinization and manmade activities were the primary causes of heavy metals in the coastal groundwater. Its average pH value was found to be 7.5, while Dissolved oxygen, Total dissolved solids, salinity, and conductivity, with values ranging from 1.18 to 7.38 mg/L, 0.5–4.88 g/L, 0.4–5%, and 0.95 to 8.56 mS/cm, respectively. The total hardness average value was 561.7 mg/L, classified into the very hard water categories, which is why 90% of the tubewell water samples were unfit for household purposes. All samples had an excessive level of arsenic present. The iron concentration of fifteen (15) samples crossed the standard limit according to WHO 2011 value. Around 63% of the samples were of the Na+-K+-Cl--SO42- type, and about 72% were sodium-potassium and alkali types. 98% of samples were covered in chloride and bicarbonate. The findings showed that 45.83% of the groundwater samples had negative Chloroalkaline index (CAIs), while 54.16% had positive. The permeability index (PI) was an average of 73%, and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) averaged 260.2 mg/L, and the findings clearly showed that 80% of the samples weren't appropriate for irrigation. According to the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) value, 65% of the samples fell into the unsuitable category. These calculations indicated a high overall salinity hazard in the study area, which may be caused by the intrusion of sea water given that the study area is close to the coastal region. Findings compared to standards revealed that the majority of the samples were deemed unfit for drinking and irrigation purposes. Hence, additional attention must be paid to this area to ensure the availability of drinkable water and to preserve sustainable farming practices.

Changing water sources and extraction methods in Bangladesh: Challenges, consequences, and sustainable solutions

The quest for safe water in Bangladesh has resulted in the shift of water sources and extraction methods throughout history. The study aims to investigate the factors driving these changes, assess the consequences of current water consumption trends, and propose solutions for sustainable water management. The research highlights the historical shift from surface water to tube-wells for accessing groundwater, driven by their affordability and user-friendly nature. However, the discovery of arsenic contamination in tube-well water raised serious public health concerns, leading to the exploration of alternative water sources and extraction techniques. Various methods such as dug wells, pond sand filters, piped water supply, rainwater harvesting, and well-sharing have been adopted by communities and indigenous groups to ensure access to safe and clean water. The study reveals disparities in the installation of deep tube-wells by the government and NGOs, often overlooking safer water sources available at shallower depths. Furthermore, the study discusses the consequences of high-yielding technologies and increased water consumption in Sonargaon Upazila, leading to groundwater-related disasters and a decline in the groundwater table. Private irrigation facilities have become more popular among people, contributing to the declining groundwater table. This study provides insights into the changing water sources and extraction methods in Bangladesh, identifies the consequences of current water consumption trends, and proposes strategies for sustainable water management. The findings underline the importance of informed decision-making, government intervention, and community involvement to address the challenges of groundwater depletion and contamination in the region.

Evaluation of Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn Concentrations in Water, Soil, and Fruit Samples in Sargodha District, Pakistan

This study aimed to assess the concentrations of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) in the edible parts of grapefruit and kinnow fruit irrigated with sewage water (SW), tube-well water (TW), and canal water (CW). Preparation of the samples used in the study for metal analysis was carried out via the wet acid digestion method. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) was used for metal determination. According to the results, Cu concentration ranged from 0.152 to 0.754 mg/L in water, 5.254 to 41.659 mg/kg in soil, and 0.128 to 0.864 mg/kg in fruit samples. Zn concentration varied from 0.574 to 2.723 mg/L in water, 17.812 to 112.954 mg/kg in soil, and 2.658 to 42.642 mg/kg in fruit samples. Fe concentration ranged from 0.254 to 1.245 mg/L in water, 10.635 to 48.638 mg/kg in soil, and 1.062 to 7.584 mg/kg in fruit samples. Mn concentration ranged from 0.154 to 0.638 mg/L in water, 51.283 to 183.865 mg/kg in soil, and 0.136 to 1.464 mg/kg in fruit samples. The Pollution Load Index (PLI) indicated that Cu and Mn exceeded a PLI value of one, and Zn had a PLI > 1 only in sewage water-irrigated sites. Bioconcentration Factor (BCF), Enrichment Factor (EF), Daily Intake of Metal (DIM), and Health Risk Index (HRI) values for all metals were within permissible limits, indicating no immediate health risks associated with consuming these fruits.

The Effects of Irrigation with Diverse Wastewater Sources on Heavy Metal Accumulation in Kinnow and Grapefruit Samples and Health Risks from Consumption

This study aimed to assess the concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cd, and Ni in the edible parts of grapefruit and kinnow fruit irrigated with sewage water, tube-well water, and canal water. Preparation of the samples used in the study for metal analysis was carried out by the wet acid digestion method. Atomic absorption spectrometry was used for metal determination. All of the studied metals were more abundant in water, soil, and fruit samples from sites irrigated with sewage water than from those irrigated with tube-well and canal water. The concentrations of Pb were established in the range of 0.047 to 0.175 mg/L in water, 12.652 to 47.863 mg/kg in soil, and 0.023 to 0.124 mg/kg in fruit samples of both varieties. The range of Cr varied from 0.107 to 0.741 mg/L in water, from 1.121 to 5.835 mg/kg in soil, and from 0.054 to 0.784 mg/kg in fruit samples of both varieties. The range of Cd varied from 0.004 to 0.028 mg/L in water, from 1.258 to 4.246 mg/kg in soil, and from 0.012 to 0.131 mg/kg in fruit samples of both varieties. The range of Ni varied from 0.384 to 1.815 mg/L in water, from 5.367 to 18.658 mg/kg in soil, and from 0.028 to 1.475 mg/kg in fruit samples of both varieties. The pollution load index indicated that Pb exceeded a value of 1, while Cd and Ni exceeded 1 only in sewage-water-irrigated sites. The bioconcentration factor, enrichment factor, daily intake of metal, and health risk index values for all metals were below 1, within permissible limits, indicating no immediate health risks associated with consuming these fruits.

Seasonal variation of 222Rn concentration in tube-well water and dose assessment of water dissolved 222Rn to the local people of Bankura District of West Bengal, India

Seasonal variation of 222Rn concentration in tube-well water and dose assessment of water dissolved 222Rn to the local people of Bankura District of West Bengal, India

Assesment of Boron in Soil, Plant and Irrigation Water under Cotton-wheat Cropping System of Northern India

Background: The use of high yielding varieties, high analysis fertilizers and intensive cultivation has depleted the fertility of soils particularly with respect to micronutrients. The deficiency of B is expected to be high in coarse-textured soils having low organic matter, high CaCO3 and high pH. Methods: Geo-referenced surface (0-15 cm, n=155) soil samples, cotton leaves at pre flowering stage (n=75), wheat flag leaves (n=80) and tube well water (n=75) samples were collected from Bathinda, Mansa and Mukatsar districts of Punjab. Result: About 5, 18 and 20 per cent of soil, cotton and wheat samples were deficient in B, respectively. Hot water soluble B in soil was significantly positively correlated with pH (r= 0.230*), ESP (0.680**), B concentration in leaves of cotton (r=0.259*) and wheat (r=0.531**) but negatively with CaCO3 in soil (r= -0.210*). About 40 per cent of tubewell waters had greater than 2.0 mg B l-1. On an average, one cm ha of tube well water may add up to 93g B ha-1 to soil.

Water woes and vulnerabilities: a case study of Bally-Jagachha block of Howrah District in West Bengal, India

ABSTRACT Water is one of the most contended resources on the planet. The need and the un-ubiquitous nature of the resource is a reality faced by the Bally-Jagachha block in Howrah, West Bengal. Here, the available water sources are tube-well and piped water, both having Water Quality Indices of more than 300 and 200, respectively. This indicates that drinking water is unpalatable, making people vulnerable to diseases. Additionally, as is evident through the Water Poverty map, inaccessibility is an expensive, debilitating problem, as people have to travel twice in 4–7 min to and from the water source to collect it and then again spend more to filter the same. The Ridit scores thus state that people are overcome by water woes in supply, availability, consumption, quality, demand, etc., but yet have no alternatives like rainwater harvesting (RWH), despite people’s acceptance to it. Thus this paper attempts to collate all the problems regarding water and suggest ways by which the Gram Panchayats here can safely implement RWH and resolve the situation for the future.

A comparative study of underground water arsenic contamination and suffering of people in Flood Plain with Deltaic reason of Bangladesh

The people were drinking arsenic-contaminated underground water in Bangladesh. We had analyzed 33,092 hand tube-well water samples, collected from all four geomorphological areas (i.e., from all 64 districts) in Bangladesh and found arsenic in 60 districts that were above the WHO recommended value in drinking water (10 μg/L) and in 50 districts that were above maximum permissible limit, 50 μg/L. In this paper, I have reported the magnitude of arsenic contamination in the tubewell water samples that were collected from two districts of Bangladesh, one from Flood Plain, named Chandpur, and another one from Deltaic region, named Madaripur. It describes the analytical report of arsenic concentrations in underground drinking water and biological samples, and people suffering from arsenic toxicity in these two districts. In the Madaripur district, 19.62% of the total tubewell water samples (n=2,309) contained arsenic concentrations that were below WHO recommended value (10 μg/L) and safe to drink, and 80.38% and 59.59% of the tubewells contained levels arsenic that were above 10 μg/L and 50 μg/L, respectively. In Chandpur district (n=1,165 tubewell water samples), these values are 4.12, 95.88, and 92.79%, respectively. Of the samples in Madaripur, the percentage of water samples with arsenic are 26.94, 12.68, 3.29. 0.91, and 0.22% in the ranges 100-299, 300-499, 500-699, 700-1,000, and above 1,000 μg As/L, respectively. In Chandpur district, these values are 57.86, 25.15, 4.81, 1.80, and 0.43%, respectively.

Assessment of the tube-well water quality: A micro-level case study from Lower Gangetic Plain (LGP) in North 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, India

The purpose of this study is to investigate the quality of tubewell water (TW) in Barasat-I (Community Development Block) under North 24 Parganas District of Lower Gangetic Plain (LGP), West Bengal, India with respect to suitability for drinking purpose. This is the first micro-level ground water related study in this region. In total twenty (20) groundwater (GW) samples from tube-wells at different locations of nine (09) Gram Panchayats (GP) were collected and analyzed. The results have been compared with the Indian standard (IS) for drinking water based on eight parameters, such as pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solid (TSS), conductivity, total alkalinity (TA), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl), and arsenic (As). Moreover, TDS (50%) and Total Hardness (TH) (90%) were found to be above the desirable limit. However, pH, Chloride, has been found to be within the permissible limit. This micro-level study revealed that high contamination with arsenic of GW has been identified on the middle to eastern side of Barasat-I. As is found to be above acceptable limit at 70% sampling points. Therefore, rural people of the eastern side of the Barasat-I are prone to a higher risk of black-foot disease due to higher level of As. Overall, the groundwater in this block is not suitable and fit for direct drinking. It needs treatment to minimize pollution or contamination, where regular monitoring and analysis is recommended to determine the extent of contamination in the other parts of LGP. The findings of this study will be beneficial to manage and control ground water vulnerability in micro-level for water scientists, policy makers, and researchers as well in sustainable way and must be achieved by 2030.

Assessment of the tube-well water quality: A micro-level case study from Lower Gangetic Plain (LGP) in North 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, India

Assessment of the tube-well water quality: A micro-level case study from Lower Gangetic Plain (LGP) in North 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, India

Appraisal of acute and chronic arsenic exposure in differently exposed school children with special reference to micronuclei formation in urine epithelial cells: A comparative study in West Bengal, India

Arsenic (As) contaminated dietary intake in daily routine can bring serious health hazards even in children. Considering drinking water ingestion and rice-grain consumption pattern, the daily dietary intake rate of As through drinking water for the exposed children was observed as 17.5 μg/kg bw/day, greater than apparently control group of children (0.2 μg/kg bw/day). Biological samples such as urine, hair and nail for the exposed children showed higher accumulation of As (159 μg/l, 3320 μg/kg and 4460 μg/kg) compared to controlled children (1.92 μg/l, 195 μg/kg and 331 μg/kg). Arsenic toxicity can eventually lead to future cancer risk which is sub-clinically manifested through biological samples along with formation of micronuclei in urine epithelial cells of the affected children. Notably, according to unpaired t-test, the detected numbers of micronuclei were significantly higher in the urine epithelial cells of exposed school children (3.25/1000 epithelial cells) compared to the control children (0.52/1000 epithelial cells). ‘Severity Adjusted Margin of Exposure’ (SAMOE) value also corresponds to the huge amount of risk (class 5) through drinking water consumption. Rice-grain samples from households and mid-day meal samples also fall under the category of Class 4 in exposed area during the risk thermometer study. The average future cancer risk to the school children from the exposed area was found to be 1 × 10−3, 0.4 × 10−3, and 1.4 × 10−3, whilst the control group belongs to an apparently lower cancer risk zone such as 0.016 × 10−3, 0.4 × 10−3, and 0.012 × 10−3 during the intake of domestic tube-well water, rice-grain and school tube-well water, respectively. Simultaneously, non-cancer risk from drinking water is much lower in control children; however, rice-grain poses similar amount of risk for both groups (0.3–2.2). Hence, corrective measures are required for the management of contaminated water along with cooking malpractices.

Chronic Exposure to Drinking Water Arsenic and Gallbladder Cancer Risk: Preliminary Evidence from Endemic Regions of India.

Evidence linking arsenic in drinking water to digestive tract cancers is limited. We evaluated the association between arsenic levels in groundwater and gallbladder cancer risk in a case-control study (2019-2021) of long-term residents (≥10years) in two arsenic-impacted and high gallbladder cancer risk states of India-Assam and Bihar. We recruited men and women aged 30 to 69 years from hospitals (73.4% women), with newly diagnosed, biopsy-confirmed gallbladder cancer (N = 214) and unrelated controls frequency-matched for 5-year age, sex, and state (N = 166). Long-term residential history, lifestyle factors, family history, socio-demographics, and physical measurements were collected. Average-weighted arsenic concentration (AwAC) was extrapolated from district-level groundwater monitoring data (2017-2018) and residential history. We evaluated gallbladder cancer risk for tertiles of AwAC (μg/L) in multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for important confounders [Range: 0-448.39; median (interquartile range), T1-0.45 (0.0-1.19); T2-3.75 (2.83-7.38); T3-17.6 (12.34-20.54)]. We observed a dose-response increase in gallbladder cancer risk based on AwAC tertiles [OR = 2.00 (95% confidence interval, 1.05-3.79) and 2.43 (1.30-4.54); Ptrend = 0.007]. Participants in the highest AwAC tertile consumed more tubewell water (67.7% vs. 27.9%) and reported more sediments (37.9% vs. 18.7%) with unsatisfactory color, odor, and taste (49.2% vs. 25.0%) than those in the lowest tertile. These findings suggest chronic arsenic exposure in drinking water at low-moderate levels may be a potential risk factor for gallbladder cancer. Risk factors for gallbladder cancer, a lethal digestive tract cancer, are not fully understood. Data from arsenic-endemic regions of India, with a high incidence of gallbladder cancer, may offer unique insights. Tackling 'arsenic pollution' may help reduce the burden of several health outcomes.

Net Gains from Conjunctive Use of Surface and Ground Water

Pakistan is fortunate enough because its soils, topography and climate are generally suitable for farming but its agriculture sector faces the problem of scarcity of the irrigation water. This paucity of irrigation supplies has forced the farmers to use the ground water to augment their surface supplies. The quality of ground water in Pakistan varies from fit for irrigation to moderately saline to sodic. Thus the tubewell owners in the marginal quality ground water areas are bound to use the tubewell water in conjunction with the surface water on their farms. Currently the farmers are using about 65.75 BCM of ground water in Pakistan [Halcrow (2002)]. The international literature is filled with the studies on conjunctive water management and its impact on crop productivity and related issues [Gangwar and Toorn (1987); Bredehoeft and Young (1983); Gorelick (1988); Lingen (1988); O’Mara (1988); Shah (1988); Brewer and Sharma (2000); Datta and Dayal (2000); Raju and Brewer (2000); Sakhtivadivel and Chawala (2002) and Chaudhary and Shah (2003)]. In Pakistan, the review of literature shows that all of the previous studies conducted in the arena of water management reported the management problems leading to the inefficiencies in irrigation application and reduction in crop productivity, [Kijne and Velde (1991); Mustafa (1991) and Siddiq (1994)]. Few of the studies took into consideration the impact of waterlogging and salinity on productivity at farm level [Meyer, et al. (1996); Prathaper, et al. (1997) and O’Connell and Khan (1999)]. None of these studies have taken into consideration the trade-offs between gross farm income, ground water and salinity at irrigation subdivision level.

Impact of Farm Households’ Adaptations to Climate Change on Food Security: Evidence from Different Agro-ecologies of Pakistan

The study used data from 3298 food crop growers in Pakistan. Potential outcome treatment effects model was applied to evaluate the impact of adaptations on household food security. A household Food Security Index (FSI) was constructed applying Principle Component Analysis (PCA). Adaptation strategies employed by the farmers in response to climate change were categorised into four groups namely: changes in sowing time (C1); input intensification (C2); water and soil conservation (C3); and changes in varieties (C4). Out of 15 mutually exclusive combinations constructed for evaluation, only 7 combinations were considered for estimating the treatment effects models because of limited number of observations in other cases. Results of only two of the 7 are discussed in the paper, as the other 5 had very small number of adapters and the impact measures shown either insignificant results or had opposite signs. The first (C1234) combined all the four, while the second (C234) combined the last three strategies. The results suggest that the households which adapted to climate changes were statistically significantly more food secure as compared to those who did not adapt. The results further show that education of the male and female heads, livestock ownership, the structure of house—both bricked and having electricity facility, crops diversification, and non-farm income are among the factors, which raise the food security of farm households and their impacts are statistically significant. The variables which are significantly negatively associated with the food security levels include age of the head of household, food expenditure management, households having less than 12.5 acres of land— defined as marginal (cultivate 6.25 to 12.5 acres). Farmers of cotton-wheat, rice-wheat, and rain-fed cropping systems are found to be more food secure as compared to the farmers working in the mixed cropping systems where farm holdings are relatively small and high use of tube-well water adding to salinity of soils. It is crucial to invest in the development of agricultural technological packages, addressing issues of climate change relevant to different ecologies and farming systems; improve research-extension-farmer linkages; enhance farmers‘ access to new technologies; improve rural infrastructure; development of weather information system linking meteorological department, extension and farmers; and establishment of targeted food safety nets as well as farm subsidy programs for marginal farm households.

Drinking water quality of Chattogram city in Bangladesh: An analytical and residents' perception study

Residents of Chattogram city areas in Bangladesh use drinking water from three sources, namely CWASA (Chattogram Water supply and Sewerage Authority), groundwater (tube-well), and commercial jar. In this study, we examined the quality of drinking water from these sources following an analytical and residents' perception. Water samples (both untreated and treated) from above three sources were collected from six locations across Chattogram city, and pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), bicarbonate, electrical conductivity (EC), salinity, and microbial load were studied following the state-of-art testing methods. A total of 149 respondents were interviewed to understand their perception on the physical properties of water. The pH value of water from all sources and locations and irrespective of treatments, varied from 6.54 to 7.02. TDS of tube-well water in two locations exceeded the standard limit (1000 mg/l). In most locations, TSS varied from 40 to 1888 mg/l (treated and untreated) against the standard value of 10 mg/l, while bicarbonate of CWASA and tube-well water in most locations was also higher than the permissible amount (500 mg/l). Except for jar water, EC of CWASA and tube-well water (treated and untreated) in most locations were higher than the standard value (500 μS) and a similar situation was observed for salinity content. The microbial load was found beyond the permissible limit (0 CFU/ml) for all sources and locations. These parameters of water quality have also been reflected in residents' perceptions of drinking water. Respondents reported an unpleasant odour (56%), the presence of suspended particles (17%), and so CWASA water is not good for drinking (76%). Authorities (CWASA) need to take action toward a safe drinking water supply for residents.