Large Tree Trunks Research Articles

PENINGKATAN KEPEDULIAN KEBERSIHAN PANTAI GORONTALO DI LABUAN BAJO DALAM MEMPERINGATI WORLD OCEAN DAY

This community service activity was carried out to commemorate World Ocean Day 2022 in Labuan Bajo in the form of a clean Gorontalo Beach on Saturday, June 11, 2022. The activity was attended by 268 participants who were representatives of the Provincial Government of NTT, West Manggarai. The district government, industry, academics, students and teachers from elementary schools around Gorontalo Beach and Labuan Bajo, Bank Indonesia NTT, and the surrounding community. Gorontalo Beach is a destination for local tourists, but the condition is a lot of garbage. The focus of the implementation of activities in the Gorontalo Beach area is 1.1 km long and is divided into ten regions for ten teams. This beach cleaning activity also teaches participants that the collected waste can be divided into three types, namely residual waste, economic value plastic waste, and plastic bottle caps. The amount of waste collected from this activity was 34 kg of plastic waste, 4.8 kg of plastic bottle caps, and 242 kg of residual waste. The collected waste is then transported to be transferred to the next process. In addition, there was an educational session for elementary school students by holding a quiz with prizes on waste management. Based on the evaluation of activities, organic waste in the form of wood and trunks of large trees was also found on Gorontalo Beach. Suggestions that can be made based on these conditions are the use of heavy equipment for cleaning tree trunks to be effective and efficient. In addition, organic waste can be used as raw material for wood crafts and fuel for production houses, such as tofu and brick production.

A New Look at Cenozoic Fossil Wood from Thailand

Thailand contains two notable fossil forest regions. Pleistocene fluvial sediments in the Tak region in the northern highlands contain silicified trunks of large trees. Deposits in the Khorat Plateau in northeast Thailand contain a multitude of wood fossils that span a probable age range of Miocene to Pleistocene. At Ban Tak fossil logs are primarily mineralized with crystalline quartz. Incomplete mineralization is characteristic of the Tak wood, with intercellular spaces commonly remaining open. The resulting permeability allows penetration of moisture, and allows introduction of microbes and the accumulation of clays, iron oxides, soluble salts and other materials that may cause discoloration and deterioration. Hydration swelling of these components results in stress. Excavation of the huge logs means that they occupy topographically low positions prone to flooding during the monsoon season. These factors make the fossils vulnerable to weathering. A variety of methods have been employed in attempts to reduce the damage, including the construction of various styles of shelters to protect the fossil logs from direct precipitation. At Khorat, compositions of individual specimens range from pure quartz and pure opal to mixtures of the two polymorphs. Many specimens are preserved indoors in the Khorat Fossil Museum in Mueang Nakhon Ratchasima District, both as indoor exhibits and as outdoor displays in a garden plaza. The environmental complexities at the Tak and Khorat fossil wood localities challenge conservators, but their creative attempts provide useful lessons for future preservation efforts. Our report describes the geologic setting and our research mineralogy of specimens at both localities, and discusses conservation strategies.

Taxonomic Studies of some Epiphytic Ferns of Upper Brahmaputra Valley, Assam

Abstract: Epiphytic ferns prefer habitats on tree trunks of large trees like Ficus sp., Mangifera sp. etc in common and forest areas of Upper Brahmaputra Valley, Assam. Species like Microsorum punctatum, Asplenium nidus, Pyrrosia lanceolata, Drymoglossum sp. are grown abundantly in common areas. Drynaria quercifolia is commonly known as oak leaf fern is spotted in some particular location in the study area and is not common. Out of 10 species of ferns recorded, 8 species belong to the family Polypodiaceae which is considered as one of the largest family in pteridophytes. Keywords: Asplenium, Drynaria, Epiphytic, Ferns, Upper Brahmaputra Valley

Evidences of early to mid-Holocene land–sea interactions and formation of Wetlands of Central Kerala in the south west coast of India

Coastal wetlands are seen in the central part of the SW coast of Kerala, India at Muriyad, Thrissur (∼15 km orthogonal to the present day coast towards inland) and form a part of Vembanad kol. These wetlands are sheltered by well-developed beach ridges in the west and lateritic uplands towards east between the latitudes and longitudes of 10°20‘-10°30‘N and 76°10‘-76°20‘E respectively. The present study aims to find the evidences of early Holocene transgression in the area and constrain its chronology using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) as well as radiocarbon dating. The general stratigraphy of the wetland section shows estuarine sandy clay at the bottom, followed by one meter thick peat unit, overlain by lacustrine clay and colluvial sediments. The fluvial sequences were devoid of peat deposits and comprised of clay and sand sequences having large fossil tree logs. OSL age of a sand layer (7.0 ± 1.0 ka) below the peat unit as well as the radiocarbon ages of peat (between 7920–7740 and 7410–7180 Cal years BP) itself indicates that the unit was formed between 8 and 7 ka BP. The peat accretion shows an average rate of 1.74 mma-1. The pollen analysis of the peat unit demonstrates that peat was formed from Rhizophoraceae mangrove plants, implying close proximity of the study area to the shore line. Dominance of wet evergreen forest taxa in the non-mangrove pollen of the peat indicates wet climatic conditions in the area. The occurrences of fossil wood stumps in upright position and large tree trunks buried in the fluvial succession show that the trees were buried in-situ in the growth position/ during the transportation by flood waters in the fluvial sequence. The fluvial unit in the wetland stratigraphy shows evidences of enhanced SW monsoon in the area, causing large scale floods, submergence of forests and destruction of large trees during 5710–5610 and 6880–6750 Cal years BP.

Airborne laser scanning reveals large tree trunks on forest floor

Fallen trees decompose on the forest floor and create habitats for many species. Thus, mapping fallen trees allows identifying the most valuable areas regarding biodiversity, especially in boreal forests, enabling well-focused conservation and restoration actions. Airborne laser scanning (ALS) is capable of characterizing forests and the underlying topography. However, its potential for detecting and characterizing fallen trees under varying boreal forest conditions is not yet well understood. ALS-based fallen tree detection methods could improve our understanding regarding the spatiotemporal characteristics of dead wood over large landscapes. We developed and tested an automatic method for mapping individual fallen trees from an ALS point cloud with a point density of 15 points/m2. The presented method detects fallen trees using iterative Hough line detection and delineates the trees around the detected lines using region growing. Furthermore, we conducted a detailed evaluation of how the performance of ALS-based fallen tree detection is impacted by characteristics of fallen trees and the structure of vegetation around them. The results of this study showed that large fallen trees can be detected with a high accuracy in old-growth forests. In contrast, the detection of fallen trees in young managed stands proved challenging. The presented method was able to detect 78% of the largest fallen trees (diameter at breast height, DBH > 300 mm), whereas 30% of all trees with a DBH over 100 mm were detected. The performance of the detection method was positively correlated with both the size of fallen trees and the size of living trees surrounding them. In contrast, the performance was negatively correlated with the amount of undergrowth, ground vegetation, and the state of decay of fallen trees. Especially undergrowth and ground vegetation impacted the performance negatively, as they covered some of the fallen trees and lead to false fallen tree detections. Based on the results of this study, ALS-based collection of fallen tree information should be focused on old-growth forests and mature managed forests, at least with the current operative point densities.

Opportunities for respiratory disease transmission from people to chimpanzees at an East African tourism site.

Respiratory illnesses, including COVID‐19, present a serious threat to endangered wild chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) populations. In some parts of sub‐Saharan Africa, chimpanzee tracking is a popular tourism activity, offering visitors a chance to view apes in their natural habitats. Chimpanzee tourism is an important source of revenue and thus benefits conservation; however, chimpanzee tracking may also increase the risk of disease transmission from people to chimpanzees directly (e.g., via aerosol transmission) or indirectly (e.g., through the environment or via fomites). This study assessed how tourist behaviors might facilitate respiratory disease transmission at a chimpanzee tracking site in Kibale National Park, Uganda. We observed tourists, guides, and student interns from the time they entered the forest to view the chimpanzees until they left the forest and noted behaviors related to disease transmission. Common behaviors included coughing, sneezing, and urinating, which respectively occurred during 88.1%, 65.4%, and 36.6% of excursions. Per excursion, individuals touched their faces an average of 125.84 ± 34.45 times and touched large tree trunks or branches (which chimpanzees might subsequently touch) an average of 230.14 ± 108.66 times. These results show that many pathways exist by which pathogens might move from humans to chimpanzees in the context of tourism. Guidelines for minimizing the risk of such transmission should consider tourist behavior and the full range of modes by which pathogen transmission might occur between tourists and chimpanzees.

The overlooked soil carbon under large, old trees

Typical soil organic carbon (SOC) measurements do not account for the higher SOC concentration adjacent to, inside and under the trunks of large trees, or for the root volume which displaces soil and thereby reduces spatial density of SOC. Any net difference between these two omissions could have a significant impact on carbon accounts for the conversion of a primary forest with large trees to a type of land cover with much smaller trees, or no trees, such as to a secondary forest on short harvest cycles, or to deforested land, respectively. To improve knowledge of carbon stocks in primary forests, for better carbon management and climate change modelling, we sampled SOC and soil bulk density directly under large tree trunks, inside tree trunks, in the humus mounds in the buttress region, and under the humus mounds. The measurements were in primary Eucalyptus regnans mixed-forest. SOC was formulated as a function of depth. Adjacent to the trees, 90% of the total cumulative SOC was estimated to be within ~2.6 m of the mineral soil surface. That SOC was compared with an earlier measurement in the same locality of SOC in-between trees, away from the trunk and buttress. The SOC under large tree trunks was about four times more concentrated than in-between trees. Formulae that link SOC, root volume, and buttress shape, to tree diameter and ground slope were applied to forest stands within 54.4 ha of primary forest. When the under-trunk SOC was tallied with the organic soils associated with the buttress region and in nearly decomposed logs, SOC at the unit-area-level increased by ~7% [95% CI: 3–12%] relative to the in-between-tree SOC alone, and the absolute increase was 21 Mg ha−1 [95% CI: 10–37 Mg ha−1] of SOC. Our results suggest that, at least for land use change that fells mature trees >1 m in diameter, there may have been higher greenhouse gas emissions from past forest attrition than have been inferred. Globally, we identified 50 example tree species, other than E. regnans, that may also have extra SOC at the stand-level in the absence of fire. Additional SOC per hectare was positively correlated with basal area of trees, which increases with the number of large trees in a stand. The maintenance of large trees will help ensure higher levels of forest carbon. The protection of medium-sized trees will be necessary to ensure existence of large trees in the future.

Helmeted Woodpeckers roost in decay-formed cavities in large living trees: A clue to an old-growth forest association

AbstractWoodpeckers (Picidae) are broadly associated with forests but vary in sensitivity to habitat alteration, with some species restricted to mature and old-growth forests, usually because of their foraging or nesting requirements. Roosting sites have rarely been considered a critical resource for woodpecker conservation because nearly all woodpecker species roost year-round in excavated cavities similar to their nest sites. A possible exception is the globally vulnerable Helmeted Woodpecker (Celeus galeatus) of the Atlantic Forest of South America. To determine whether roosting ecology may explain their association with mature forest, we radio-tracked 12 Helmeted Woodpeckers in old-growth and selectively logged forests in Argentina, monitored roost cavities, and provided 9 roost boxes. Unlike other woodpeckers, Helmeted Woodpeckers roosted year-round in decay-formed cavities (n = 21), with perching space above the entrance, in the living trunks of large trees. Adults usually roosted alone, but after nesting (in excavated cavities), each adult roosted with one juvenile in a shared, decay-formed cavity for up to 67 days, implying that cavities need enough space for 2 birds. We did not observe use of roost boxes. Helmeted Woodpeckers travelled up to 1,482 m between nests and roosts, reused roost cavities over multiple years (sometimes changing ownership), and interacted aggressively with other cavity-nesting birds at roost cavities, indicating that suitable cavities are a scarce resource. Because logging is likely to have a strong negative impact on the availability of this resource, we urge managers in the Atlantic Forest region to retain large living trees with decay-formed cavities and to allow more selectively logged areas to become old growth.

Open field-applicable instrumental methods for structural and functional assessment of whole trees and stands

This illustrated review is aimed to provide succinct account of different methods applicable for obtaining objective information about the functional ecology of forest sites and stands (and also, e.g., orchards, watersheds, parks or alleys) for the purposes of phytotechnology or precise forestry. Management strategies must consider preservation of many important functions of forests in the landscape. Management methodologies include classical forestry approaches based on classification of the natural environment according to climatic zones, soil characteristics and composition of herbaceous as well as woody vegetation. One possibility for obtaining objective information came with the development of ecologically applicable instrumentation, allowing studies on the whole tree and stand levels to be undertaken anywhere in the field. Information may be derived at sites that are not permanently observed and are not equipped with additional constructions, such as towers, masts, or greenhouses. These field applicable methods are focused especially on tree and stand macrostructure, water relations and functional parameters of trees. In addition, problems associated with interactions between trees and different organisms are also discussed. A series of methods based on different principles is useful to measure mostly quantitative, operative or effective tree parameters as tree crowns and leaf distribution, stems (or large tree trunks) and root systems including skeleton and absorptive fine roots. This is sometimes possible to do with rather simple methods, but instrumental methods prevail especially for root studies. In addition to several classical measurement principles including anatomical or mechanical sensing, the methods work with sound speed (acoustic tomography) using electromagnetic rays of different wavelength (from radar to optical), electric conductivity or impedance, supersonic air stream and thermodynamics for example. Methods for data evaluation and examples of application are also included. The whole complex system approach should serve for different scientific fields (including hydrology, landscape care, horticulture, forensic engineering, etc.) and especially to support precise forestry.

Water storage dynamics in the main stem of subtropical tree species differing in wood density, growth rate and life history traits.

Wood biophysical properties and the dynamics of water storage discharge and refilling were studied in the trunk of canopy tree species with diverse life history and functional traits in subtropical forests of northeast Argentina. Multiple techniques assessing capacitance and storage capacity were used simultaneously to improve our understanding of the functional significance of internal water sources in trunks of large trees. Sapwood capacitances of 10 tree species were characterized using pressure-volume relationships of sapwood samples obtained from the trunk. Frequency domain reflectometry was used to continuously monitor the volumetric water content in the main stems. Simultaneous sap flow measurements on branches and at the base of the tree trunk, as well as diurnal variations in trunk contraction and expansion, were used as additional measures of stem water storage use and refilling dynamics. All evidence indicates that tree trunk internal water storage contributes from 6 to 28% of the daily water budget of large trees depending on the species. The contribution of stored water in stems of trees to total daily transpiration was greater for deciduous species, which exhibited higher capacitance and lower sapwood density. A linear relationship across species was observed between wood density and growth rates with the higher wood density species (mostly evergreen) associated with lower growth rates and the lower wood density species (mostly deciduous) associated with higher growth rates. The large sapwood capacitance in deciduous species may help to avoid catastrophic embolism in xylem conduits. This may be a low-cost adaptation to avoid water deficits during peak water use at midday and under temporary drought periods and will contribute to higher growth rates in deciduous tree species compared with evergreen ones. Large capacitance appears to have a central role in the rapid growth patterns of deciduous species facilitating rapid canopy access as these species are less shade tolerant than evergreen species.

Investigating xylem embolism formation, refilling and water storage in tree trunks using frequency domain reflectometry

Trunks of large trees play an important role in whole-plant water balance but technical difficulties have limited most hydraulic research to small stems, leaves, and roots. To investigate the dynamics of water-related processes in tree trunks, such as winter embolism refilling, xylem hydraulic vulnerability, and water storage, volumetric water content (VWC) in the main stem was monitored continuously using frequency domain moisture sensors in adult Betula papyrifera trees from early spring through the beginning of winter. An air injection technique was developed to estimate hydraulic vulnerability of the trunk xylem. Trunk VWC increased in early spring and again in autumn, concurrently with root pressure during both seasons. Diurnal fluctuations and a gradual decrease in trunk VWC through the growing season were observed, which, in combination with VWC increase after significant rainfall events and depletion during periods of high water demand, indicate the importance of stem water storage in both short- and long-term water balance. Comparisons between the trunk air injection results and conventional branch hydraulic vulnerability curves showed no evidence of ‘vulnerability segmentation’ between the main stem and small branches in B. papyrifera. Measurements of VWC following air injection, together with evidence from air injection and xylem dye perfusion, indicate that embolized vessels can be refilled by active root pressure but not in the absence of root pressure. The precise, continuous, and non-destructive measurement of wood water content using frequency domain sensors provides an ideal way to probe many hydraulic processes in large tree trunks that are otherwise difficult to investigate.

Mozel

Mozel Saadat Hasan Manto (bio) Translated by Tahira Naqvi (bio) Tirlochen was looking at the sky for the first time in four years, and only because he was upset and had gone up to the terrace at Adwani Chambers so that he could think rationally in the open air. The sky, clear and cloudless, stretched like a taut grey tent over all of Bombay. Scattered lights extended to the horizon. It seemed that the stars had fallen from the sky, alighted on the tops of buildings—which in the darkness of the night looked like large tree trunks—and glimmered on them like glow worms. Being under the open sky was a new experience for Tirlochen, a new feeling. He realized that in the four years he had spent in his flat, he had been deprived of one of nature's great blessings. It was nearly three o'clock. The air was light and buoyant. Tirlochen was used to the fan's mechanical breeze, which weighed him down. When he awoke in the mornings, he felt as if he had been beaten all night. But now, in the morning air, every pore of his body seemed to be joyously absorbing the freshness. When he came up to the terrace, his mind was burdened with disturbing thoughts, but in half an hour the fever in his brain had abated and he found himself thinking rationally. Kirpal Kaur and her entire family were in a neighbourhood dominated by staunch Muslims. Several houses had already been burnt down, and a great many lives had been lost. Tirlochen might have taken Kirpal Kaur and her family out of there, but a twenty-four-hour curfew had been imposed, there were Muslims everywhere, and surrounded by these dangerous people, Tirlochen felt helpless. In addition to that, there was news pouring in from Punjab of the widespread killing of Muslims by Sikhs. Any hand, any Muslim hand, could reach out at any time, seize Kirpal Kaur's delicate wrist, and push her towards the well of death. Kirpal's mother was blind, her father was a cripple, and her only brother was in Devlali overseeing a new contract. Tirlochen was vexed with Kirpal's brother, Niranjan. Tirlochen read the newspaper every day and had warned Niranjan a week ago about the rapidly spreading disturbances. "Forget about these contracts for the time being," he had told Niranjan, adding candidly, "We're going through a very delicate phase, and although you must stay with your family, it would [End Page 111] [Begin Page 113] be even better if you brought them over to my house. It's true there isn't much space, but in times of trouble one can manage." Niranjan ignored the warning. And when Tirlochen finished lecturing him, he smiled under his thick moustache and said, "Yar, you worry needlessly. I've seen many such disturbances here. This is not Amritsar or Lahore; this is Bombay…Bombay. You've been here for four years; I've lived here for twelve years…twelve years." What did Niranjan think Bombay was? He probably figured this was a city where disturbances, if they did develop, would disappear of their own accord, as if by magic. Or he might have thought this was a storybook castle impervious to catastrophe. But Tirlochen could see very clearly that the mohalla was not safe at all. As a matter of fact, he would not be surprised if he read in the next morning's paper that Kirpal and her parents had been murdered. He was not concerned about Kirpal's blind mother or her handicapped father. It would be fine, as far as he was concerned, if they died and Kirpal was spared. Better too if her brother also got killed, because then the way would be clear for him. Niranjan was not a stone in Tirlochen's path, but more of a khangar. And thus when Tirlochen talked to him, he called him Khangar Singh instead of Niranjan Singh. The morning air blew lazily. Without a turban, Tirlochen's head felt pleasantly cooled. But inside his head, innumerable thoughts ran about haphazardly…Kirpal Kaur was a newcomer in his life. Although...

VOCs fate and partitioning in vegetation: use of tree cores in groundwater analysis.

Analysis of tree cores collected from contaminated sites has shown that concentrations of VOCs in cores are related to groundwater concentrations. However, initial research was highly qualitative. To better understand the relationship of groundwater VOC concentrations to measured VOCs in tree cores, detailed understanding of contaminant behavior in vegetation is required. Work presented here investigates the interaction, with focus on the chlorinated solvents trichloroethylene, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, and carbon tetrachloride. The sorption and desorption partitioning of these compounds between air and woody biomass were investigated. Partitioning coefficients were determined for cores of trunks of large trees and smaller stem cuttings. The internal partitioning of these compounds between the transpiration stream and the woody biomass within the tree was also determined for cores. The partitioning coefficients of the compounds between air, water, and biomass of tree cores and trunks were related to the physicochemical characteristics of contaminants, mainly the Henry's law constant and vapor pressure. These partitioning coefficients relate the contaminants' concentration in the bulk solution and analyzed headspace of vials and therefore can be utilized to quantify the fate of contaminants in natural settings and in phytoremediation systems. Tissue analysis and determination of partitioning coefficients may provide an effective way to estimate the concentration of compounds in the transpiration stream and in the soil or groundwater in a noninvasive, extremely rapid, and cost-effective manner.

Spatial variability of soil solution chemistry under Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) in Tama Hills

A monitoring study on precipitation and soil solution was conducted to analyze soil acidification processes at the Rolling Land Laboratory (RLL), Hachioji, Tokyo based on the spatial variability of the soil solution chemistry around the Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) trunk. Soil solution samples were taken at various distances from the tree trunks and at various depths. Soil solution pH at the depth of 10 cm decreased to 4.1–4.2 on the downslope side of large tree trunks, presumably due to the heterogeneity of throughfall input and extensive infiltration of acidic stemflow. Ammonium ions brought by throughfall and stemflow were nitrified and provided large amounts of H+. Protons were replaced with exchangeable cations. When base cations were depleted, aluminum ion became the dominant cation species. On the average, Ca2+ concentration in the soil solutions at the depth of 10 cm decreased from 0.28 mmolc L-1 at the reference site to 0.18 mmolc L-1 on the downslope side and Mg2+ concentration decreased from 0.30 mmolc L-1 to 0.15 mmolc L-1. Arithmetic mean aluminum concentration at the depth of 10 cm on the downslope side was 0.35 mmolc L-1. Here aluminum dissolution was the main acid sink. Based on the spatial variability of the soil solution chemistry, soil solution acidification processes were divided into four stages.

Radiocarbon Dating of Holocene Sediments: Flood Events and Evolution of the Labe (Elbe) River in Central Bohemia (Czech Republic)

We studied the structure and development of the Holocene floodplain of the Labe (Elbe) River by radiocarbon dating sections of the upper and middle courses of the river. We focused on geomorphological and sedimentological conditions, mineralogy and the chemical composition of sediments. We established the stratigraphy of the Holocene deposits of the floodplain. The results of our investigation of fluvial sediments imply that several abrupt changes in temperature and precipitation occurred during the Holocene. These changes led to intervals of hydrological disequilibrium, which caused the formation of two Holocene terraces and a contemporaneous floodplain. The lower terrace was flooded and covered with sediments upon which the recent floodplain formed. During the Holocene, there were four periods during which large tree trunks were deposited in the fluvial sediments, indicating periods of extensive flooding. The supposition that these events were of more global scale is supported by the results of investigations made on the Holocene floodplains of other regions.

Relative growth of the postcranial skeleton in callitrichines

This study presents the results and suggested functional implications of a metric analysis of skeletal size and shape variation in ontogenetic samples of three callitrichine species: Saguinus oedipus, Saguinus fuscicollis and Callithrix jacchus. Adult interspecific shape differences distinguish S. fuscicollis from the other species. The most notable of these are the intermembral and brachial indices, both of which are significantly higher in S. fuscicollis. Ontogenetic growth patterns are highly conserved across species and the species-specific patterns of growth-related change are virtually identical. Saguinus fuscicollis exhibits a significantly higher intermembral index throughout the period of ontogeny observed in this study, and has a relatively longer radius at any given size or age. The elongation of the forelimb in S. fuscicollis is best seen as an adaptation for increasing the lateral positioning of the forelimbs when foraging on the trunks of large trees.

Tertiary Fluvial Systems Within the Bear Creek Coal Field, Northern Big Horn Basin, Montana

The Bear Creek coal field contains the 250-m-thick coal-bearing Paludal Member of the Paleocene Fort Union Formation in the northern Big Horn Basin, Montana. Detailed field and subsurface data show two contrasting geometries in alluvial strata, each bounded by an economic coal bed. The lower 50 m of the Paludal Member is dominated by sheet and ribbon sandstones. The sheet sandstones are as long as 1.5 km and fine upwards from medium to fine grained. Some sandstones are multistory with sharp upoper and lower contacts. The upper portion has convolute bedding, ripple lamination, and some horizontal and tabular crossbeds. Stratigraphically higher is a 12-m-thick fine-grained sequence, containing large tree trunks in growth position and extensively rooted mud rocks. Sandstone bodies, 6 m thick and 10 m wide, are enclosed within mudstones and siltstones. The sandstones are primarily ripple laminated and have stepped bases and internal erosion surfaces. This interval has previously been interpreted as deposits of an anastomosed fluvial system. The sandstones show little evidence of significant lateral migration. In contrast to the lower interval, the environment here consisted of well-developed vegetated islands separating fluvial channels. Subsurface data show that the major coal beds are laterally continuous within the studymore » area. The cyclic development of the coals reflects intermittent periods of long-term basin stability. Alternating dominance of the sandstones suggests that influx and distribution were controlled through episodic uplift of the nearby Beartooth Mountains.« less

Morphology, biology, and systematic relationships ofDesmaria (Loranthaceae)

Desmaria mutabilis is unique inLoranthaceae in having dimorphic shoots, the short shoots producing a terminal inflorescence. Other unusual features in the family are well differentiated bud scales and deciduousness. The normal position of mature plants on the trunks of large trees is shown to be a consequence of profuse vegetative reproduction from the epicortical roots, the predominant growth direction of the latter towards the trunk from the original site of establishment on a lateral branch, and the ability of epicortical roots to generate haustorial contacts through heavy host bark. The seedling is heterocotylar, one cotyledon being phanerocotylar, the other cryptocotylar and functioning as a haustorial organ in the endosperm. It is suggested thatDesmaria is a member of the primitive complex of loranthaceous genera which includesGaiadendron.

Studies of Mineral Cycling in a Montane Rain Forest in New Guinea: III. The Distribution of Mineral Elements in the Above-Ground Material

SUMMARY (1) As a preliminary to studies on mineral cycling in a lower montane rain forest at about 2500 m altitude in New Guinea, estimates have been made of the amounts of six elements (N, P, K, Na, Ca and Mg) in the various fractions of above-ground material. (2) Analyses have been performed on material from nineteen fractions on a single ridge-top plot 20 x 20 m; trees of gbh > 30 cm (trunk wood, trunk bark, branches, twigs, leaves), trees of gbh 4m tall (stems, leaves), saplings and shrubs 1-4 m tall (stems, leaves), plants 1 m tall (stems, leaves), epiphytes (stems, leaves), epiphytic soil, litter and dead trunks and branches. About 2300 analyses have been carried out. (3) The concentrations of N, Ca and Mg generally increased toward the centre of the trunks of large trees, while that of P decreased; K and Na were variable. The concentrations of N, P and Mg in the wood tended to increase with height, but there were no significant trends in the bark. Intraspecific differences were considerable, and interspecific ones large. The mean concentrations of N, P, K and Mg generally increased along the series: trunk wood < branches < trunk bark < twigs < leaves. For Ca they increased along the series trunk wood < branches < leaves < twigs < trunk bark. (4) The concentrations of N, P and K in leaves fell with increasing age, but that of Ca increased and those of Na and Mg were variable. The concentrations of N, P, K and Na were not consistently different in saplings and trees of the same species, but those of Ca and Mg were higher in sapling leaves. (5) The concentrations of all six elements in small trees, saplings, seedlings and climbers varied greatly between species, but the mean values for leaves, or for stems of similar girth, were similar in all these life-forms. The vascular epiphytes differed in their consistently low foliar concentrations of N. (6) The concentrations in the epiphytic bryophytes and lichens were similar to those in epiphytic soil derived largely from them, and the concentration of N was not as low as in the vascular epiphytes. (7) Amounts in the various fractions were first calculated for the 20 x 20 m plot and, after a consideration of the likely errors, for the whole forest, for which the above-ground capital was estimated to be (in kg ha-') 850 N, 49 P, 700 K, 31 Na, 1500 Ca and 210 Mg. The distribution in four major fractions was similar for N and P, and for Ca and Mg. The relative importance of the dead material and epiphytic material with respect to N and P was much greater than suggested by their dry weight contributions. (8) The correlations between the concentrations of particular elements in different parts of the tree, and between different elements in each part of the tree have been considered for eighteen species, and possible explanations are discussed. There was no significant correlation between the leaf concentration and the trunk wood or bark concentration for N, P or K.

The Occurrence of Mecodium wrightii in Canada

I have recently received from Mr. C. V. Morton a notice of the occurrence of an interesting filmy fern in British Columbia. Complying with my request, he kindly lent me the specimen in the United States National Herbarium, and suggested that I should prepare a note on it. The specimen examined is labelled as Mecodium wrightii, an identification of E. B. Copeland, It was collected by Dr. H. Persson in Canada in the summer of 1957, the locality being: North end of Dawson Inlet, off Skidegate Channel, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, on west exposed shady vertical precipice, ca. 10 m.s.m. There is no question that this filmy fern is Mecodium wrightii (v. d. Bosch) Copeland. Mecodium iwrightii was originally described by van den Bosch1 on the basis of a specimen collected by C. Wright at Hakodate, in Hokkaido. The known range of distribution has been from Saghalien2 and the southern Kuriles3 to Kyushu and southern Korea. The headquarters of its distribution lie in the central and northern districts of Honshu, usually at altitudes lower than 11500 meters. In Shikoku and Kyushu it is found, rarely, at 500 to 1000 meters elevations. In the regions where M. wrightii is most abundantly found, it is usually growing on the bases of the trunks of large trees, especially of aged Cryptomeria japonica (Pl. 8, 9), in humid dense mountain forests. These substrata are in general moist and mossy. In northern Honshu and Hokkaido, it grows mostly on mossy rocks or cliffs in shade and usually in places with high humidity. Viewed in the vertical distribution, it grows, even in Hokkaido, at altitudes higher than 1000 meters, but it has never been collected in the alpine regions of central Honshu, where M. polyanthos is occasionally found. Thus, M. wrightii has more limited habitats and distri-