Tribal Solidarity Research Articles

Processes of Cohesion and Fragmentation among Arab Tribes During the Syrian Civil War

ABSTRACT With the rise of ISIS in eastern Syria after 2014, there was a discussion among Western powers about the possibility of arming Arab tribes to lead the fight against ISIS on the ground. This paper challenges the assumption that tribes are cohesive units and argues that internal differences and contested leadership run counter to the image of tribes as unified groups. While tribes are fragmented, one can, however, observe some examples that testify to the existence of tribal solidarity during the course of the Syrian civil war. Overall, this paper attempts to answer the following questions: What caused fragmentation among members of the Syrian tribes during the Syrian Civil War? What inspired cohesion in other instances? It argues that multiple factors, such as violence, patronage networks with internal and external authorities, and competition among leaders to represent the group internally and externally, can have a fundamental effect on the processes of cohesion and fragmentation.

Ethnic Clashes in Manipur: Conflict against Subaltern Subjugation

The Manipur is now in a hotbed of violent ethnic clashes between Meiteis and Kukis. The ethnic clashes begun after the verdict given by Manipur High Court. The honorable court urged the state government to recommend the proposal to the Union Ministry to consider the ST tag to the Meiteis. The All Tribal Student Union Manipur (ATSUM) organized the ‘Tribal Solidarity March’ on 3rd May to protest against the High Court verdict. Demographically the Meiteis are the majority with 53% population but not considered as native inhabitants. Therefore, they constantly demanded the Schedule Tribe status. But the other tribal communities opposed the inclusion of the Meiteis as tribal or ST status. The state government role was not active to control of the situation.

Формирование политической субъектности сирийских туркоман в рамке постимперского национального государcтва

The article focuses on the issue of minorities political actorness during the current armed conflict in Syria. The author speculates on why a country where the ethno-confessional structure of the population has not changed significantly for decades, suddenly faced an intensive politicization of communal identities. The tested hypothesis is that this has emerged from a long process of the state capacities weakening both in the territorial and functional aspects. In this context, the author studies the community of Syrian Turkmen, the third largest ethnocultural group in the country. The selection of this case was guided not only by a lack of relevant in-depth studies, but also by the group's self-identification as a part of the Turkic (Ottoman) world. The application of “Brubaker's triangle” as an analytical tool made it possible to view the nationalism of such minorities in relation to the policies of the “nationalizing state” and “external national homeland”. The study involves analysis of (a) the system of regulation of socio-cultural pluralism in the Ottoman Empire, (b) the peculiarities of state- and nation-building in Syria and (c) the process of Turkmen community politicization during the civil conflict. It is concluded that its political actorness was formed due to such factors as violation of the “social contract” between the ruling elite and the population during the period of neoliberal reforms, the “external homeland” (Turkey’s) support, as well as the persistence of mechanisms of tribal solidarity and self-government among the Turkmen, which allowed them to partially implement the project of cultural autonomy in Northern Syria.

Konsep "Satu Tungku Tiga Batu" Sosio-Kultutal Fakfak sebagai Model Interaksi dalam Kehidupan Antarumat Beragama

ABSTRACT: In the context of the plurality of religion in Indonesia, efforts to develop the study of "religious harmony" became very important. Unfortunately, the study about this topic still very rare. Since the reform era of information research focusing on aspects of religious harmony with the approach of the survey still small number of group, and its popularity is lower than with the research information related to religious conflicts. This paper is one of the efforts the study of harmony between religious communities in the context of Fakfak on the Province of West Papua. Community objective conditions that reflect the reality of the oneness of the Fakfak between plurality of religion with a determination for unity between the person itself and between people and between place. In terms of ethnic and cultural difference, but not a lot of religious and regional language with dialects into a form that is typical of the history of the Islands. To unite the Fakfak of Papua with the social and religious conditions like that, they make a consensus together to create a cultural system, referred to by the term "one-three-stone stove". One three-stone stove is seen as a cultural system that diabstrakan of concrete events, used to understand things living togetherness in individuals and society. Unity in the cultural system of society this defenseless Fakfak strong adhesive. Moreover, the condition of the community characterized the history of the third entry of the religion at the same time. The concept underlying mindset and setting the matter of integration as a force of ethnic fraternity, although different religions. This cultural system considered that gives direction and orientation to the citizens of the community to establish the same culture of tribal solidarity, harmony, tolerance between ethnic groups, religions, and social. Cultural system called a three-stone stove in public life as a manifestation of the Fakfak idiologi culture, are seen as important and valued so deceived behaviour in life between believers. KEYWORDS: one-three-stone stove, interact, believersÂ

Ever the Land: A People, A Place, Their Building

Reviewed by: Ever the Land: A People, A Place, Their Building David Lipset Ever the Land: A People, A Place, Their Building. Documentary, 93 minutes, dcp or Blu-ray, color, 2015. Written and directed by Sarah Grohnert; produced by Alexander Behse. Distributed by Monsoon Pictures International and the New Zealand Film Commission. See http://evertheland.com/ for prices and availability. Ever the Land: A People, A Place, Their Building celebrates the Tūhoetribe, the Māori people who live in a heavily forested corner of the North Island of Aotearoa/New Zealand. The Tūhoe filed compensation claims with the Waitangi Commission in 2007 and subsequently decided to allocate nz$15 million for the construction of a large tribal center at the valley entrance of their contested, tragic land. Designed by Ivan Mercep, the center was meant to adhere with the Living Building Challenge, whose stringent standards of sustainability require careful attention to material sourcing and a great deal of compliance documentation. Called Te Uru Tamatua, it was to be the first such building in Aotearoa. In a visually compelling way, Ever the Land tracks the building process by embedding it in the context of the dialogue surrounding it. That dialogue, on which the filmmaker unobtrusively dotes, tells a thought-provoking story. Through voices and actions, we learn of the contested relationship between Tūhoe green ideology and tribal solidarity. This view is asserted in lovely scenes in which children are put to bed by mothers with stories about ancestor-spirits who hate trash, [End Page 197] bricks are handmade for the new building, and, in shots interspersed throughout the narrative, fog rises over thick forests that cover their mountainsides. But some Tūhoe voices complain. It is to the great credit of the young director, Sarah Grohnert, that scenes are included in which men rather forcibly object to money being allocated for a tribal purpose rather than to help buy individuals houses to live in. The Tūhoe are poor, the movie makes clear, and live day to day in subsistence pursuits, sending children to school as best they can. The implication would be that, for dissenters, the tribal center is nothing but a vain extravagance. Use is also made of voiceovers from the radio announcing the project, the death of the building’s architect, and the pending settlement from the New Zealand government. The latter agreement is indeed signed in 2013 in Parliament. The tribe is compensated and receives more control over the Urewera National Park on its land. The state apologizes for a past of violence, indignities, and land theft. Brick by brick, board by board, solar panel by solar panel, Tūhoe and Pākehā laborers and managers erect the building. Images of the fog, the forest, trucks dumping cement, rooms stuffed with scaffolding, and so forth appear like a kind of call-and-response chorus throughout the movie. Meanwhile, impromptu meetings of orange-vested men and women in hard hats take place on the job site. Building products imported from Europe are banned, as are red-list chemicals. In more formal settings, Tūhoe discuss the pending settlement with the Crown and are kept in the loop about the roject. Will it be earthquake proof? How will it contribute to a sustainable future for the tribe? The movie more or less culminates with the opening ceremony for the building. An intense haka (ritual dance) is performed, after which a large throng of onlookers make their way across a parking lot. A couple of children cut a braided ribbon made of leaves and enter the edifice for a first look at its cavernous rooms, display cases for artifacts of tribal history, and recycling bins. The narrative begins and ends with a scene of the same rural setting, as if to suggest that the new building has not had any demonstrative impact on the relatively remote and basic quality of life of the Tūhoe. At first, we see through a window, perhaps of a car in which the filmmakers arrive, a somewhat distant image of a modest home at the foot of a forested mountainside. A grassy field that is fenced in several ways, perhaps as...

Developing and Utilizing Efficient Ties in Entrepreneurial Networks in Africa

How do an entrepreneur's capabilities affect social network development? What characteristics of the African context make network dynamics different than in more Westernized and developed markets? A theoretical model that links social effectiveness to effective relationship building and network development leading to greater levels of social capital is presented in an effort to address these and related questions. Social effectiveness provides a competitive advantage in social network development in three primary ways. First, socially effective entrepreneurs are able to identify potential contacts that will fulfill needs in their current social network. Second, they are able to develop effective relationships with a greater range of potential contacts, and third they are able to develop effective relationships with less effort. We describe effective relationships developed through limited social interaction as efficient ties. More importantly, we highlight how the development of efficient ties is different in African countries than in more Western nations. Specifically, (1) ubuntuism in certain collectivist countries and (2) tribal solidarity make efficient ties easier to develop and (3) corruption and distrust in economic exchange, (4) liabilities of kinship ties, and (5) tribal, religious, and linguistic diversity make the development of efficient ties more difficult compared to Westernized contexts.

ASPEK SOSIO-BUDAYA, KEBIJAKAN PEMERINTAH, DAN MENTALITAS YANG BERPENGARUH TERHADAP INTEGRASI SOSIAL DALAM MASYARAKAT SUMATERA BARAT

This study aims to explore the socio-cultural aspects, policies, and the mentality that influence social integration in the western Sumatran society. Location of this study spread over counties and cities in West Sumatra, represented by the six District/City, namely: Pasaman Barat, Solok, Pesisir Selatan, Sawahlunto, Dharmasraya, and Bukittinggi. Selection of sample areas is based on the degree of heterogeneity of society. The study was designed in the form of a survey with a qualitative approach. Data collected through interviews and documentation studies. Data were analyzed in stages through data collection (recording), categorizing the data, coding the data by category, and data interpretation. The results obtained from this research is presented in a description of the socio-cultural community which is reflected in the socio-cultural "malakok" as a means of integration of migrant communities with indigenous communities. “Malakok” existence becomes more obvious with the current government policy called "Back to the Nagari". This policy is an attempt to revive the traditional leadership role in the governance system of the Minangkabau society. Lastly, in addition to social integration, malakok strength in Minangkabau society is influenced by the mentality of the local communities such as tribal solidarity, tolerance, loyalty, and openness. Key Word : the socio-cultural aspects, policies, the mentality, malakok

Social Science and the Politics of Modern Jewish Identity (review)

Reviewed by: Social Science and the Politics of Modern Jewish Identity Jonathan Karp Mitchell B. Hart . Social Science and the Politics of Modern Jewish Identity. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000. Pp. viii + 340. This important study of Jewish social scientists in the early decades of the twentieth century is not really about "Jewish identity," as the title misleadingly suggests, but about the Zionist effort to use statistics and social scientific measurements to indict Jewish emancipation and demonstrate instead why Zionism alone could solve the Jewish Problem. Hart recapitulates some of the material covered in John Efron's 1994 Defenders of the Race (New Haven, Conn., 1994), though with less stress on Jewish scientific apologetics and more on nationalist agendas. He locates the broad programmatic aims of Jewish statistics within the project of cultural regeneration initially formulated by the Democratic Faction within the Zionist movement. His subsequent focus on the early career of Arthur Ruppin allows us to glimpse precisely how social science could function to overcome the alienation experienced by acculturated central Europeans, affording them a seemingly objective rationale for engaging with the lives of the East European Jewish masses who, as Ruppin put it, "remain untouched by western culture." Science would bridge the gulf between "degenerate" Western Jews on an assimilatory descent into "race suicide" and Ostjuden seen to embody the national virtues of tribal solidarity grounded in a racially hygienic orthopraxy. In a series of fascinating chapters Hart depicts Jewish social scientists diagnosing and cataloguing the various ailments of emancipated Western Jews—declining birth rates, increased suicides, physical and moral degeneration, and a host of other Judenkrankheiten, in addition, of course, to intermarriage and conversion. In contrast to the more positive Haskalah evaluations of westernization, social scientists like Ruppin, Felix Theilhaber, Hugo Hoppe, and others evolved a social Darwinian and Volkist idealization of the medieval ghetto, which they depicted less as a locus of physical disease and cultural suffocation than as a salutary laboratory of national survival. Even so, few of the social scientists believed the East European ghetto could long remain viable or favored its restoration in the West. On the contrary, they assumed that ghetto walls would not long withstand the relentless assault of capitalist modernity. Hence, only the reconstituted "healthy" ghetto of the Zionist imagining would effectively stem the further intrusion of "foreign elements" into the national bloodstream. [End Page 754] Hart's superb chapter on "Measuring and Picturing Jews" examines how social scientists made use of eugenic iconography to support their pan-Judaic doctrines. Ruppin's 1930 Die Soziologie der Juden, for instance, included a pictorial collage of contemporary Jews from different lands and backgrounds in which photos of prominent Jews like Albert Einstein were interspersed with images of anonymous "Semites" culled from newspapers and travelogues. The purpose was to make overwhelming the case for a Jewish physical resemblance transcending all distinctions of culture or class. As Hart notes, the presence in the collage of "Einstein—the genius—proves the point that, regardless of intelligence, status, or class, the Jew is above all else a member of a particular and identifiable nation and class" (pp. 191–92). Race served not only to unify contemporary Jews from diverse locales but also to link Jewries separated by epochs and millennia. The Zionist social scientists set out to prove that Jews had remained essentially unchanged (and uncontaminated) from the era of biblical antiquity through the present. The intention, as Hart makes clear, was to substantiate not only the national credentials of the Jews but their racial and historical claims to the land of Jewish origins, Palestine, as well. Though written with admirable concision, the book occasionally sacrifices analytical coherence in its pursuit of comprehensiveness. A chapter on "Non-Zionist Uses of Social Science," for instance, rather than serving simply to offset and thereby sharpen the book's focus on Zionist anthropological ideologies, strives instead to present a complete picture of contemporary Jewish social science—a task well beyond the scope and evident interest of the text. Similarly, in his conclusion, Hart makes it appear as if the far-reaching significance of his findings is methodological rather than political by appending a polemic against the uncritical faith...

Northern Arapaho Conversion of a Christian Text

Beginning in the 1880s, the Northern Arapaho appropriated Christianity while maintaining core religious forms and tribal solidarity. Through retranslation of the Arapaho Our Father, it is possible to understand how Arapaho Catholics “converted” this text and other forms to their own theory of ritual practice. Rather than converting to doctrine or the Word,missions were subsumed within a larger strategy of compartmentalizing new religious forms within distinct boundaries and activating them within a hidden subtext of Arapaho ritual movement. Through a unique religious pluralism,which maintained both difference and congruity among traditions, Arapaho Catholics were empowered to control the boundaries between cultures and the flow of knowledge across them. Retranslation of the Our Father, or Lord's Prayer, through attention to multiple functions, meanings, and uses, offers paths for understanding indigenized texts in their local and specific cultural and historical contexts. This article thus follows an ever-developing effort in ethnohistory to understand the ways that indigenous peoples actively translated Euro-American texts and interpreted Euro-American culture. Through this pursuit, ethnohistory can move toward greater balance and symmetry as text translation is opened to multiple and continually evolving levels,perspectives, and meanings.

The disintegration of tribal solidarity among American sociologists: Implications for knowledge accumulation

Sociology in America scores low on all those organizational dimensions that produce cumulative knowledge. The ratio of skepticism to trust is high; the selection of facts is heavily influenced by the rituals of diverse tribes and ideological cults; the use of instrumentation to observe and report facts is limited; the consensus over valid facts is horizontal rather than hierarchical; the mutual monitoring of knowledge often degenerates into games of rhetoric or, if not rhetoric, to mutual ignorance about the knowledge claims of rival tribes; the barriers separating sociologists from the lay public are porous; and the necessary material, symbolic, cultural, and organizational resources needed to sustain the discipline are unstable and typically in short supply. This situation is tragic because most of the problems confronting humans are organizational in nature; and yet, the science of social organization is not a major player in policy decisions. Indeed, policy is influenced more by ideological and political rhetoric, or even worse, by disciplines such as economics which have an inadequate theory and psychology which has no theory of the structure and collectivity. This exclusion of sociology from important policy decisions is the result of the perceived failures of the discipline to cumulate knowledge and to possess knowledge that would be useful to clients.

Enga Social Life and Identity in a Papua New Guinea Mining Town1

ABSTRACTThe process of modernisation coupled with division of labour and leisure have had an enormous impact on tribal people. This group of people have responded to the bewildering environment with the consolidation of their existing network on ethnic and tribal solidarity. This paper looks at one group of people, the Enga people of Papua New Guinea (PNG) while they sought employment in the now abandoned Bougainville copper mine. The paper explains that the Enga workers maintained their own identity through utilisation of leisure activities amid the diverse presence of other workers in the mining town. It concludes that if ethnic and tribal solidarity were to be superseded by other forms of social alliance, would the latter eventually perform the role of protecting, recruiting, and reciprocating not only in Bougainville but in other PNG town settings? These are some of the questions that need to be addressed in the context of socioeconomic development and change in PNG and in other similiar developing countries.

The effect of labour migration on relations of exchange among the Rashaayda Bedouin of Sudan

The effect of labour migration on relations of exchange among the Rashaayda Bedouin of Sudan. William Charles YOUNG During the past ten years thousands of the Rashaayda Bedouin have left their homes in the Republic of Sudan to seek paid employment in Saudi Arabia and other oil-rich Arab states. The consequences of labour migration for this small, pastoralist society have been significant. Relations of mutual support among neighbors and patrilineal kin, which traditionally were activated to facilitate nomadic pastoralism, are now used to make it easier for pastoralist households to export surplus male labour. Hierarchical relations between rich and poor have changed, since the rich have had few advantages over the poor when seeking jobs abroad. In many cases wealthy Rashaayda sought assistance from poorer relatives in obtaining labour contracts. Migrants who wished to invest their earnings in small commercial enterprises after returning to Sudan found that their allies from within the Rashaayda tribe lacked the necessary experience and resources and so established business partnerships with non- Rashaayda. Others who sought to increase their social rank and security used their money to contract marriages with distantly-related kin or even with non-Rashaayda. Thus the problems and opportunities that Rashiidy labour migrants faced prompted them to create new relationships of exchange and support and so, ultimately, alter the patterns of alliance and tribal solidarity that used to characterise their social life.

Tribal associations, tribal solidarity, and tribal chauvinism in a Kenya town

From a close analysis of African activities and actions in the Kenyan town of Nakuru from the 19205 to the 1960s, it is argued that living in towns tended to consolidate the identities of tribal groups and to exacerbate their differences. Contrasts between the urban responses of the Kikuyu, on the one hand, and the Western Kenyan tribes, the Luo and the Abaluhya, on the other, are analysed, and are related to differences in the tribal structures and in the political, economic and social changes that were taking place in their rural areas. By the early 1960s, the stage was set for open political competition between tribal groups.

Secondary Marriage and Tribal Solidarity in Irigwe, Nigeria1

This paper endeavors to do two things. The first section describes how co‐husband relationships enjoyed by the traditional Irigwe system of secondary marriage helped in former days to keep the tribe's twenty‐five ritual units at peace with one another. The second section examines an instance of legislated social change clearly related to the development of an Irigwe tribal administration in recent decades, and to its continuing effectiveness today. In 1968 both the traditionalist “pagan” majority and the change oriented Christian minority on the Irigwe Tribal Council voted to outlaw all future secondary marriages. The paper considers both political and underlying structural factors which may have led to this action.

Task Experience and Intertribal Value Differences on the Wind River Reservation

A study of the value orientations of the Shoshone and Northern Arapaho Indians living on a reservation in Northwestern Wyoming suggests that the Shoshone, who stress individualistic and achievement orientations, hold values closer to the whites living on or near the reservation, than the Arapaho who stress collectivistic and nonachievement orientations. These tribal differences in value orientations can be explained by the different ways in which the two tribes perceive the white reference group. The Shoshone consider the white reference group as an audience group which rewards them for task performances sanctioned by achievement and individualistic values. The Arapaho, who consider the whites as a reference group which punishes but does not reward them for task performances based on white values, have tended to reject white values and to develop tribal solidarity vis-'a-vis the whites by rewarding collectivistic task solutions as well as giving positive sanction to lower aspiration levels through stress on being, present, and subjugation-to-nature orientations. A great deal of research has been done on the role which values and value systems play in promoting sociocultural integration as well as their influence on the nature and direction of culture change. However, there has been little research investigating the actual sociocultural processes that promote value persistence or variation. The term value has been defined in many ways but in this paper values will be considered to be conceptions ofthe desirable patterns, goals and norms. Values are moral standards which serve as criteria by which the worthwhileness of the modes, means and ends of action can be evaluated. Thus Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961:395) have defined a value as .... a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from the available means, modes and ends of action.. Values or evaluative orientations must be distinguished from cathectic orientations which represent preferences for one kind of behavior, activity or relationship whether considered highly desirable or not and cognitive orientations which involve axioms, propositions, or empirical generalizations dealing with some feature of human experience but not involving a liking or disliking for objects or relationships (Locke and Breer, 1965:7). Values are objects, goals or relationships which are considered desirable not necessarily currently desired or preferred in every situation. They serve as criteria by which conduct is judged

Task Experience and Intertribal Value Differences on the Wind River Reservation

A study of the value orientations of the Shoshone and Northern Arapaho Indians living on a reservation in Northwestern Wyoming suggests that the Shoshone, who stress individualistic and achievement orientations, hold values closer to the whites living on or near the reservation, than the Arapaho who stress collectivistic and nonachievement orientations. These tribal differences in value orientations can be explained by the different ways in which the two tribes perceive the white reference group. The Shoshone consider the white reference group as an audience group which rewards them for task performances sanctioned by achievement and individualistic values. The Arapaho, who consider the whites as a reference group which punishes but does not reward them for task performances based on white values, have tended to reject white values and to develop tribal solidarity vis-à-vis the whites by rewarding collectivistic task solutions as well as giving positive sanction to lower aspiration levels through stress on “being,” “present,” and “subjugation-to-nature” orientations.

Tribal Solidarity and Messianic Movements

Tribal Solidarity and Messianic Movements

Natural Law and Manifest Destiny in the Era of the American Revolution

Wee hope to plant a nation, where none before hath stood.—Alexander Whitaker, Good Newes from Virginia, 1613.Anthropological studies have shown that the myth of destiny, along with the myth of origin, has exerted a tremendous influence in shaping tribal mentality and sustaining tribal solidarity. In the history of many modern nations the influence of the myth of destiny can also be perceived. Thus, the belief in a peculiar destiny which had already been formulated among the separate colonies throughout the early period of American history was of special import in the growth of a consciousness of national identity among American colonists during the years of their struggle for independence.This study aims at scrutinizing the changes in the formulation and meaning, during the revolutionary era, of the myth of a peculiar destiny and the impact of the doctrine of natural law in bringing about these changes. The main theses are, first, that the American colonists met the need felt during the revolutionary era for new evidence of and support for an American “destiny” by appealing to the seemingly secure tenets of the doctrine of natural law; and, second, that, as a consequence of this intermingling of “destiny” and “natural law,” the assertion of an American destiny was transformed from a “faith” to a “certainty,” or, more accurately, from a dream to an appointment “manifest.”

The Beginnings of National Self-Determination in Europe

The Origins and the development of the national idea in Europe have been in recent years, particularly since the first World War, a favorite topic of culturo-historical studies. These studies have traced the gradual movement of European peoples toward national self-determination, and have described as normal the development from a vague feeling of warring tribal solidarity to a more conscious patriotism which customarily crystallizes around the prince, the king, in brief, the sovereign. According to these studies, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries national culture was more and more emphasized; the claims of national language increased and finally reached a culmination in the Reformation.

The Associations of the Serente

H E Ser6nte of the Rio Tocantins are of the Akwi branch of the T Central G&, which further includes the SakriabL, extinct since the beginning of the nineteenth century, and the Savbnte. The Savjnte and Serente, while politically distinct, are essentially identical in language and custom, so that as late as about 1850 they were still frequently designated by the joint name “SavLnte.” However, their local separation was a t that time a well recognized fact, accentuated by the recurring feuds between these closely related groups. Several efforts a t consolidation failed and became hopeless when about the middle of the century the Savinte abandoned the country east of the Araguaya, even discontinuing raids in that direction. Notwithstanding a greater sense of tribal solidarity than is customary among Brazilian natives, each SerCnte village is a virtually autonomous unit with its own council of elders, chiefs, peacemakers, and associational leaders. The houses are ranged peripherally in horseshoe shape, with the Siptat6 moiety on the south and the sdakr5 moiety on the north. The bachelors’ hut occupies the center of the settlement, and each of the five associations, including the women’s, assembles a t a definite spot within the horseshoe. Contrary to Canella practice: the exogamic moieties are patrilineal and divided into clans, each localized on the periphery; and residence is patrilocal. Without tracing their descent from the celestial bodies, the Siptat6 and sdakr5 are connected with sun and moon, respectivcdy. In consequence the former chant during solar eclipses, being merely accompanied by the complementary group, while a t lunar eclipses the parts are reversed. The sun reveals himself to his moiety through planetary go-betweens, viz. Jupiter and Venus; the intermediaries between the moon and his half of the village are Mars and the Seven Stars. The solar planets grant visions in the daytime, the lunar stars a t night.