Tribal Settlements Research Articles

A study to assess the occurrence of anaemia and beta-thalassemia in the tribal population residing in the Yadadri-Bhuvanagiri district of Telangana state

ABSTRACT Background: This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of anaemia and haemoglobinopathies, particularly beta-thalassemia in the tribal population of the Yadadri-Bhuvanagiri district of Telangana. Methods: The sample consisted of a tribal population (Banjara) that visited voluntary blood camps set up in tribal settlements, local schools, and the Gram-panchayat office, in collaboration with local healthcare workers. Haemoglobin measurements (Anaemia) and Mentzer index of whole blood (EDTA) samples were used as diagnostic screening tools for categorising the population at risk of beta-thalassemia. HPLC was used as a confirmatory test. Results: The study included a total of n = 479 (68% females and 32% males) voluntary adult participants of Banjara. Based on the haemoglobin levels, 105 females (32%) were found to be anaemic as compared to 24 males (15.5%). Among the female population, a small percentage of individuals had severe anaemia (1.9%), while most had mild (80%) or moderate anaemia (18%); on the other hand, males primarily had moderate anaemia. Out of the total screened population, 6.7% (5.2% with low Hb levels (anaemic), 3.3% by MI) were found to be thalassemia based on anaemia and Mentzer index as a screening tool. Conclusion: The prevalence of beta-thalassemia was found 6.7% in the Banjara population.

Molecular prevalence of Dirofilaria sp. hongkongensis, among the dog population in Thiruvananthapuram, India

Human dirofilariasis is an emerging vector-borne zoonotic parasitic disease in India. Humans are accidental hosts. Symptomatic dirofilariasis, although uncommon is typically manifested in humans as pulmonary, ocular, or subcutaneous nodules. The present research reports the prevalence of the species, Dirofilaria sp. hongkongensis among the dog population in the Kani tribal settlements within the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve located at the southernmost end of the Western Ghats, Kerala. To study the prevalence, we conducted a random blood survey among the dog population in these tribal settlements in Thiruvananthapuram. Whole blood was collected from stray and domesticated animals. Genomic DNA was extracted and the microfilariae in the blood were characterized using the slide smear and COI-based marker specific to nematodes. After processing the data from the Sanger sequencer using BLAST, the sequences were submitted to GenBank. Over 25 % of dogs were found positive for Dirofilaria sp. hongkongensis, which is genetically identical to the strain causing human dirofilariasis as is shown by the phylogenetic analysis. The study reveals that the Kani tribes, who reside in deep forests, are particularly vulnerable to this strain of Dirofilaria sp. hongkongensis. Human case reports of this specific strain have been recorded in Kerala over the past decade. The effective elimination is ultimately impacted by a lack of knowledge regarding the mosquito vectors. Dirofilariasis in dogs and humans is on the rise, which demands both active disease surveillance and proper treatment.

Burden of malaria during pregnancy in perennial transmission settings of two densely forested and remote blocks (Baihar and Birsa) of district Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh, central India.

Background Malaria in pregnancy (MIP) is a major public health problem due to the vulnerability of pregnant women to infections, resulting in adverse maternal/foetal outcomes in endemic areas. Methods We did a field-based study to assess the burden of MIP (prevalence at the time of enrolment and follow-up) and to identify risk factors for MIP in the Birsa and Baihar blocks of district Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh, which have perennial malaria transmission. Malaria screening (during 2015-2017) was done by microscopy and bivalent rapid diagnostic test (SD Bioline RDT, malaria antigen Plasmodium falciparum/Plasmodium vivax Pf/Pv). Dried blood spots were used for haemoglobin estimation. Sociodemographic details with past and present pregnancy status were obtained. A subset of pregnant women were followed up for malaria during pregnancy. Women were also screened for malaria post delivery. Malaria treatment was given as per the National Guidelines of 2013. Multivariate analysis was done to assess independent risk factors for malaria. Results A total of 1728 pregnant women were screened, of which 1651 were included in the final analysis. Malaria prevalence at first screening was 23.4% (Pf 88%). Prevalence and Pf parasitaemia both were significantly higher among primigravid (G1) compared to multigravid (G>2; p value 0.012 and 0.019, respectively). Pregnant women of the Baiga ethnic group were more likely to have malaria compared to those belonging to the Gond group (OR [95% CI]; 2.4 [1.7-3.4]; p<0.00001) and non-indigenous group (OR [95% CI]; 8.3 [3.9-19.7]; p<0.00001). Primigravid status of women, first and second trimester of pregnancy, women belonging to indigenous ethnic tribal group and cash crop insufficiency for whole year (a socioeconomic indicator) in the family were the independent risk factors for malaria. Conclusion MIP is a major public health problem in forested tribal settlements of Birsa and Baihar blocks of Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh and requires immediate intervention.

The Quality of Life among Tribal Communities Living in Western Ghats: An Exploratory Research

The Western Ghats (WG), also called Sahyadri, are a mountain range that covers 140,000 square kilometres and extends parallel to the western coast of the Indian Peninsula. The WG have been home to over fifty distinct tribes. The tribal community residing in the WG faces a multitude of obstacles, such as economic instability, low literacy rates, poor living conditions, limited political influence, and health-related issues. Quality of life (QOL) describes the well-being of a human’s life. This study aimed to investigate the QOL of tribal communities living in WG. The data were collected from the tribal settlement in the Ranni, Konni and Attapday forest division. This study was qualitative in nature and adopted exploratory research design and sampling design was purposive. The data collected for the study was through the single focus group discussions. 15 single focus group discussion were conducted. Each focus groups consisted with 12 participants, of which 6 were males and 6 were females. The data were analysed by thematic content analysis. This study proposed a model of quality of life; the model includes eight factors such as Social Relationship, Health, Work, Financial and Material Wellbeing, Belonging, Personal Safety, Quality of Environment, Emotional Wellbeing.

Socio-cultural practices and experiences of menstruation among adolescents and women of Kurichiya tribe of Wayanad: an ethnographic study

Background: Menstruation and related cultural practices are widespread in Indian communities, particularly in tribal settlements. Past studies have highlighted the negative impact of these practices on women's mental health and well-being. However, there remains a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding the specific effects of these practices on women's lives. Methods: This study utilised an urban ethnographic research design to explore cultural practices and lived experiences within urban settings. It focused on Kurichiya settlements in Wayanad's Chennalode area, part of Kalpetta municipal town in Kerala's Wayanad district. Fourteen participants, women and adolescent girls aged 15 to 50, were involved in the study. Results: The qualitative analysis identified three core themes: cultural practices of menstruation, women’s menstrual experiences, and perspectives on menstrual practices. The examination of cultural practices revealed subthemes: menarche celebration and monthly period rituals. Women's menstrual experiences encompassed emotional experiences during menarche and each monthly period. Perspectives on menstrual practices highlighted effects on mental well-being and participant’s advocacy for change. Conclusions: The study portrayed how traditional practices affect daily life for Kurichiya women, causing emotional disruption. Despite some liberalisation, a full shift in these customs remains elusive in current times.

Human exposure to methyl and butyl parabens and their transformation products in settled dust collected from urban, semi-urban, rural, and tribal settlements in a tropical environment

The present study involved monitoring the distribution of two widely consumed parabens (methyl paraben (MeP) and butyl paraben (BuP)) and their transformation products in indoor dust from different categories of settlement (urban, semi-urban, rural, and tribal homes). The results revealed a prevalent occurrence of parabens in all the settlement categories. A non-normal distribution pattern for MeP and BuP levels across the sampling sites was noted. While comparing the residence time of parabens in dust samples, it was found that the half-lives of the analytes were greater in the dust from urban (MeP t1/2: 47.510 h; BuP t1/2: 22.354 h) and rural (MeP t1/2: 27.725 h and BuP t1/2: 31.500 h) areas. The presence of paraben metabolites, such as hydroxy methylparaben (OH–MeP), para hydroxy benzoic acid (p-HBA), and benzoic acid (BA) in dust samples supports their transformation within indoor spaces. The average daily intake of parabens through dust ingestion and dermal absorption by children was higher than adults. BuP was the prime contributor (>85%) to the total estradiol equivalency quotient (tEEQ) in all the settlement categories.

Localization of the Nevrian and Scythian Plowmen Tribes in the Context of Ethnogenesis of Eastern Slavs

Archaeological researches of settlements and hillforts of the VII-III centuries B.C. in the Middle and Upper Dnieper region on the territory of Ukraine and Belarus in the 20th and 21st centuries contributed to the possibility of further ethnological research of the Slavs. B. Rybakov in the 1980s developed a system of the Eastern Slavs ethnogenesis research from the Bronze Age to Ruthenia using the methods of historical geography, based on the research of Ukrainian (S. Berezanska, V. Illinska, O. Terenozhkina, etc.) and Belarusian (O. Melnykivska, L. Pobolia) archaeologists. He compared the maps of the homeland of the Proto-Slavic tribes from different periods and found the sameness of their main contours for two millennia. This fact became the basis of our further research.During the Scythian period, a civilizational breakdown took place in Rome and Athens – a change from the natural tribal system to the imperial-oligarchic one. In Eastern Europe during these ages and before the emergence of Kyivan Rus, Slavic tribes continued to live in a tribal system. In this work, we aim to prove the tribal structure of the Slavs by locating the nests of the ancestral settlements of the Slavic tribes of the Herodotus’ Neurs and Scythian farmers in the basins of the Dnieper, Prypiat, and Desna rivers on the modern maps at a scale of 1:250,000. Analogous mapping of the nests of Scythian farmers’ tribal settlements of the Left Bank of Ukraine was published in the previous issue of the Ukrainoznavstvo journal. These and further similar studies will reveal the characteristic features of the ethnogenesis of Ukrainian Slavs from the annalistic tribes of Kyivan Rus to the Iron, Bronze, and Copper Ages.

Revitalization of a Vernacular Settlement, A Case of Araku Valley

Indian traditions have a significant share in the cultural diversity of India which are now becoming extinct. In the name of progress, we are ignoring and making us unaware of its importance. In the mistaken belief that we are transposing a “HIGHER CULTURE”, we are succeeding to destroy the indigenous culture of tribes. “Each country has its own heritage; this heritage should not be seen in the form only of monuments, but as a living thing – a thread of continuity maintained by living lives in a manner which come naturally to people. It is for designers to exercise their ingenuity in enriching, without changing violently, the pattern of life.” In this context, a study of a particular tribal settlement and shelter, in regard to multiple forces which ultimately decide the form of both, is not only valuable and fruitful but also urgent. Revitalization of the slowly degenerating tribal community is an important aspect in this present-day context. The study was undertaken in 2003 in a tribal community situated in Araku Valley. The objective of the study is to understand the current relevance of the issue and to consider this as a guide to undertake similar studies. Keywords: Culture, Tribal community, settlement, Vernacular

Household poverty dynamics in tribal Madhya Pradesh, India: A case study of 54 villages

AbstractI study the time path of households' poverty, as well as determinants of mobility in and out of poverty in rural India. The research combines qualitative and quantitative data collected from tribal settlements of rural Kesla block of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Methodologically, we build on the “stages of progress” framework and additionally conduct a transition matrix analysis of mobility using participatory data. Nonpoor but vulnerable households are identified using two cut‐offs: a poverty line and a prosperity line. The main finding is that factors lifting households out of poverty differ from those factors that cause a fall into poverty and the same is also true for reasons behind poverty persistence. Hence, the design of public policy interventions to alleviate chronic poverty and facilitate households' graduation out of poverty need to be different, taking into consideration various factors at play.

Effect of a community-based multicomponent intervention on cervical cancer behavior among women - A randomized controlled trial.

Cervical cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide, especially in developing countries. More than one-fifth of newly diagnosed cervical cancer cases are occurring in India. Cervical cancer is a highly preventable and curable cancer compared with other types of cancer, if detected at an early stage. The present study has been carried out to assess whether a community-based, multicomponent, nurse-led intervention program improves cervical cancer screening behavior of women. An experimental randomized controlled trial was carried out by recruiting 419 women in the age group of 30-60 years (246 in the experimental group and 173 in the control group) residing in a selected rural community (selected tribal settlements) of Idukki district of Kerala, India, using multistage cluster sampling. The intervention comprising small group education followed by reinforcement session, telephonic reminders, navigation and guidance for Pap smear, and follow-up visit by the investigator was administered to the experimental group, and the control group did not receive any intervention. Knowledge, attitude, and screening behavior of women related to prevention of cervical cancer were assessed before and twice after the intervention. The experimental and control groups were homogenous in all baseline sociodemographic variables. The community-based intervention program was effective in improving knowledge (P < 0.001), attitude (P < 0.001), and screening behavior (P < 0.001) of women regarding the prevention of cervical cancer. A significant moderate positive correlation was found between knowledge and screening behavior (r = 0.408). Significant association was found between knowledge, attitude, and practice regarding prevention of cervical cancer with education, age at the time of marriage, and number of pregnancies. The community-based, multicomponent, nurse-led intervention program was effective in improving cervical cancer screening behavior among women. Repeated motivation and reinforcement are needed to bring behavioral change and to increase uptake of screening services among rural women.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF TRIBAL SETTLEMENTS IN THE WESTERN GHATS

The Western Ghats, also known as Sahyadri is a mountain range that covers an area of 140,000 square km parallel to the Western coast of the Indian Peninsula .It traverses the states of Kerala , Tamilnadu , Karnataka ,Goa ,Maharashtra, and Gujarat. It is a UNESCO world heritage site and is one of the eight hottest hot spots of biological diversity in the world. It covers 5000 species of flowering plants ,139 mammals species ,508 birds species, and 179 amphibian species ,many discovered species live in the Western Ghats . At least 325 globally threatened species occur in this region. The region glitches many anthropogenic intervention like illegal mining, the establishment of human settlement and deforestation etc. From a Historical view, the Western Ghats is the home for tribes &gt; 50 types of tribes are living in the Western Ghats from the anecdotal period. The majority of the tribal are largely dependent on forests for their livelihood. After the implementation of the forest policy , the tribal livelihood status really worsened in the Western Ghats , they are unable to meet the daily requirement of recommended food intake &gt;2500 Kcl. After post-independence (73years ) of India many development programs are implemented in the tribal area for improvement of livelihood status , but as of calendar date they are facing many problems like economic instability , lack of literacy , lower level of quality of life and not politically empowered . In this context , in the interest of policy implication at the tribal area , the present study was undertaken to study the socioeconomic status and spatial distribution of tribal in the Western Ghats. This study practically helps the policymakers , planners of the policy, and researcher scholars to extrapolate the tribal settlement through the geo-spacing tag of tribal , socio-economic level, Knowledge and attitude of Conservation of Western Ghats at the population level .

Ethnomedicinal survey among Kani Tribes and traditional healers in Selected Tribal populations of Trivandrum district

Indian tribes constitute around 8.3% of the total population. The health problems of tribal communities are influenced by the interaction of various socioeconomic and political factors. An attempt is made to document the traditional knowledge of the Kani tribes in the floristically rich Peringamala panchayath of Thiruvananthapuram district. The investigation revealed that the Kani tribes were using 127 species of ethnomedicinal plants, belonging to 57 families. The most cited family was Fabaceae and leaves were the most frequently used plant parts for the treatment of various diseases. Some medicinal plants used by Kani tribes which are included in the list of rare and endangered categories, such as Aristolochia tagala, Holostemma adakodien, Entada scandens, Anaphyllum beddomeii, decalepsis arayalpathra which are vanishing from the tribal settlement areas. So special attention should be given to cultivate and conserve these rare medicinal plants by making them available for mass cultivation, either through conventional methods or other non-conventional methods like micropropagation. The study showed that the Kani tribes have good knowledge about medicinal plants that have been passed orally from generation to generation. Current healers may be the final generation of Kani tribal healers. Due to rapid socio-economic and cultural changes, there is a possibility of losing the treasure of tribal knowledge in near future. The wealth of this tribal knowledge would lead to a greater potential for the Indian system of medicine towards new drug discovery and development.

Marae Ora Kāinga Ora: Indigenous Health and Wellbeing Solutions via Time-Honored Indigenous Spaces

Marae Ora, Kainga Ora (MOKO) is a three-year research study established as a marae-led intervention project to strengthen the provision of housing with five urban marae in South Auckland, Aotearoa New Zealand. In brief, marae are primarily places for cultural gatherings and are the centres of activity for Māori communities. Though just one of the marae involved is part of a pre-European tribal settlement, the four other marae were established to meet the cultural needs of Māori who had relocated many decades ago from their tribal areas outside of the Auckland region. The project works with Marae Research Coordinators (MRC) nominated by each marae to build research and development capacity and capability through the sharing of skills, information, and resources. Each MRC is affiliated with their respective marae, either through whakapapa (genealogical links) or through their contributions of service and leadership. The role of the MRC is critical in capturing the lived realities, experiences, and aspirations of their marae community. This was evident in the first year of the project (2020) when three of the five marae actively responded to the needs of their communities during COVID-19 lockdowns in Auckland. While the project has a housing focus, the marae involved demonstrate, in their own distinctive ways, how health and wellbeing is intrinsic to their core function.

The Powhatan Landscape: An Archaeological History of the Algonquian Chesapeake

The Powhatan Landscape: An Archaeological History of the Algonquian Chesapeake

Documentation of Vascular Plants of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India

The wide range of climatic factors and their interaction reflect the diversity of the vegetation communities. The major vegetation types of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR) includes Southern Tropical dry thorn forest, Southern Tropical dry deciduous forest, Southern Tropical moist deciduous forest, Southern Tropical semi-evergreen, moist bamboo brakes and Riparian fringing forest. A total of 426 plant species under 311 genera belong to 100 families, including infraspecific taxa were recorded from the study area. Fabaceae is the dominant family with represents 42 species; similarly Ficus is the dominant genera with 9 species have been recorded. The MTR is a home for many rare and threatened plants. The present study we recorded 81 plants are under threatened condition. Using vegetation data collected from the larger Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, in and around the five tribal settlements in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. The current study concluded that the MTR poses a severe and persistent conservation threat to both within and outside protected reserve forests.

Livelihoods of Vulnerable People: An Ethnographic Study Among the Birhor of Chhattisgarh

Vulnerable people (VP) lack in access to resources, development benefits, such as education, health, infrastructure and basic means of livelihoods. They are considered disadvantaged in comparison to other groups in relation to access to resources and other entitlements. VP, such as women, person with disability, people living with HIV/AIDS, sexual minorities, poor migrants, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes often face numerous discrimination. One such vulnerable group known as Birhor, a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group from the Chhattisgarh state of central India, is the focus of this article. The main purpose of the article is to look into their livelihood complexities in the contemporary period. This article is an outcome of an ethnographic fieldwork among Birhor, in Umaria Dadar Tribal settlement, Kota block of Bilaspur District, Chhattisgarh. The article draws its inferences based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data is collected from the study area by using different anthropological tools and techniques. The secondary data is gathered from the Birhor Vikas Abhikaran ( Birhor development agency), Bilaspur, and both published and unpublished reports of the government and civil society agencies, and other sources. The article looks into the inherent intricacies of livelihood approaches and vulnerability looking at the vicissitudes of livelihoods of Birhors. The major finding of the article is that Birhor people are slowly and steadily moving towards a settled life from their traditional life of hunting and gathering. They are accepting now the new sociocultural lifestyles in the study area.

Factors influencing utilization of cervical cancer screening services among women – A cross sectional survey

IntroductionGlobally cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among women. Prevention and control of cervical cancer is a major public health concern. Pap smear screening is a proven and cost-effective preventive strategy for early detection of cervical cancer. Current study aimed to assess various factors affecting utilization of cervical cancer screening services. Materials and methodsThis cross-sectional study involved random selection of 430 women in the age group of 30–60 years of age residing in selected tribal settlements of Marayoor Panchayat of Idukki district of Kerala, India. Structured questionnaire was used to collect data on demographic variables, and factors affecting utilization of cervical cancer screening services. ResultsUtilization of cervical cancer screening services was very low in the studied population and only 5% of the studied population has undergone Pap smear screening during their life time. In the current study lower level of knowledge regarding cervical cancer screening was significantly associated with nonparticipation in screening services. Lack of awareness (25.06%), lack of adequate health care facilities (22.67%), lack of symptoms (11.69%), not feeling at risk (11.93%) and social stigma (9.55%) were identified as important factors affecting utilization of cervical cancer screening services. ConclusionDespite being preventable low awareness level on cervical cancer and underutilization of screening services was found in the studied population and various sociodemographic and cultural factors are affecting utilization of screening services. There is a need to strengthen existing screening programmes and to implement effective campaigns to improve access to screening services.

ПЕРМСКОЕ ПРЕДУРАЛЬЕ В V–VII ВВ.: РЕКОНСТРУКЦИЯ СИСТЕМЫ РАССЕЛЕНИЯ С ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕМ ГИС

The article on the base of GIS-technologies reconstructs the tribal settlement system of the “Harin time” (5th–7th centuries) in the Perm Cis-Ural region. The basis for reconstruction is materials of 45 sites, forming five territorial groups. Each of these groups can be interpreted as a community (tribe) settlement area with internal economic unity. The comparative analysis of topographical peculiarities of the sites location, specifics of space organization, population dynamics, probable population size, communication links of groups made it possible to distinguish two types of adaptive strategies of human interaction with the environment. The first type has a producing economy (cattle-breeding) as its basis. This type was situated within the Tuisko-Poludenskaya and Sylvenskaya groups. The location of the settlements on the terraces above the floodplain in groups of two or three villages at some distance (about 3 km) from the necropolis is typical for this type. There are two or three groups of settlements within one territory, the distance between groups is about 6 km. The boundaries of the territory can be marked by hillforts, making up a single defensive / signal line. The second type is oriented to the appropriating economy — hunting and gathering — and was typical for the northern territories of the region (the Lologskaya, Gainskaya and Velvinskaya groups). The location of cemeteries near settlements (no more than 1 km) is typical for these territories. In this case, one cemetery often adjoins one village. There are from one to three or more such groups within the territory. The distance between them is 3–4 km. As a rule, there is one single hillfort in the territorial groups. In the first type, we can see the prevalence of local “Glyadenovo” traditions, and in the second — of foreign “Kharino” ones.

Tropical forest conversion and its impact on indigenous communities Mapping forest loss and shrinking gathering grounds in the Western Ghats, India

Conversions of natural forests to forest plantations threaten ecosystems and forest-dependent indigenous populations in many parts of the world. It is crucial to understand the scale and nature of such forest conversions and how they affect forest-dependent communities as a basis for prudent forest management and protection of indigenous livelihoods. This study analyses natural forest conversions and their impacts on tribal communities in the southern Western Ghats, a globally significant biodiversity hotspot. It focuses on two tribal settlements in protected forests within the catchment of the Achankovil River. The study involves time series analysis of forest cover change, based on a historical map and satellite images, field mapping of changes in the tribal communities’ areas of operation, household surveys, and focus group discussions. The analysis shows that the area of protected forest decreased by 53 % from 1978 to 2015. As a result, the size of the tribal communities’ gathering areas considerably shrunk, resulting in a decline in their collection of non-timber forest products and increased dependency on forest plantations labour for their livelihood. This is especially critical as the tribal communities still prefer to depend on natural forests for their sustenance. Preservation of natural forests is hence crucial not only for biodiversity conservation, but also to protect socio-economic and cultural traits of tribal populations.

A Comparative Study on the Indigenous Traditional Animal Husbandry Practices among Four Major Animal Rearing Tribal Population of Wayanad District, Kerala

Aim: The present study was taken up to gain insights on the husbandry practices of four major animal rearing tribal communities of Wayanad district namely, Adiyan, Kuruma, Urali and Kattunaykka, tribes.&#x0D; Study Design: Details regarding animals reared method and purpose of rearing, marketing and economy of animal rearing, materials and designs used for construction, of animal houses were collected by visiting the tribal colonies and conducting informal interviews with the village head and other elders in the community. The findings were documented analysed and discussed.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted from to 7th January 2019 to 19th April 2019 in Sulthan Bathery Thaluk of Wayand district, Kerala.&#x0D; Methodology: The tribal settlements were visited and data collected by conducting informal interviews with the village head and other elders in the community. Structural designs and peculiarities were photodocumented for comparison between communities. The findings were documented, analysed and discussed.