Trends In Socioeconomic Disparities Research Articles

Socioeconomic Inequality in Respiratory Health in the US From 1959 to 2018

Air quality has improved and smoking rates have declined over the past half-century in the US. It is unknown whether such secular improvements, and other policies, have helped close socioeconomic gaps in respiratory health. To describe long-term trends in socioeconomic disparities in respiratory disease prevalence, pulmonary symptoms, and pulmonary function. This repeated cross-sectional analysis of the nationally representative National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) and predecessor surveys, conducted from 1959 to 2018. included 160 495 participants aged 6 to 74 years. Family income quintile defined using year-specific thresholds; educational attainment. Trends in socioeconomic disparities in prevalence of current/former smoking among adults aged 25 to 74 years; 3 respiratory symptoms (dyspnea on exertion, cough, and wheezing) among adults aged 40 to 74 years; asthma stratified by age (6-11, 12-17, and 18-74 years); chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ([COPD] adults aged 40-74 years); and 3 measures of pulmonary function (forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV1], forced vital capacity [FVC], and FEV1/FVC<0.70) among adults aged 24 to 74 years. Our sample included 160 495 individuals surveyed between 1959 and 2018: 27 948 children aged 6 to 11 years; 26 956 children aged 12 to 17 years; and 105 591 adults aged 18 to 74 years. Income- and education-based disparities in smoking prevalence widened from 1971 to 2018. Socioeconomic disparities in respiratory symptoms persisted or worsened from 1959 to 2018. For instance, from 1971 to 1975, 44.5% of those in the lowest income quintile reported dyspnea on exertion vs 26.4% of those in the highest quintile, whereas from 2017 to 2018 the corresponding proportions were 48.3% and 27.9%. Disparities in cough and wheezing rose over time. Asthma prevalence rose for all children after 1980, but more sharply among poorer children. Income-based disparities in diagnosed COPD also widened over time, from 4.5 percentage points (age- and sex-adjusted) in 1971 to 11.3 percentage points from 2013 to 2018. Socioeconomic disparities in FEV1 and FVC also increased. For instance, from 1971 to 1975, the age- and height-adjusted FEV1 of men in the lowest income quintile was 203.6 mL lower than men in the highest quintile, a difference that widened to 248.5 mL from 2007 to 2012 (95% CI, -328.0 to -169.0). However, disparities in rates of FEV1/FVC lower than 0.70 changed little. Socioeconomic disparities in pulmonary health persisted and potentially worsened over the past 6 decades, suggesting that the benefits of improved air quality and smoking reductions have not been equally distributed. Socioeconomic position may function as an independent determinant of pulmonary health.

Diet quality trends among adults with diabetes by socioeconomic status in the U.S.: 1999\u20132014

BackgroundThe diet quality of adults living in the United States has improved overtime. We aim to determine whether diet quality among adults with diabetes mellitus has changed over time, and to examine trends in socioeconomic disparities in diet quality.MethodsRepeated cross-sectional analysis of eight National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) cycles (1999–2000 through 2013–2014). We included 5882 adult participants (age 20 or older) with diabetes mellitus (type 1 or 2) who completed 24-h dietary recalls. Diet quality was measured by the Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI) score (range 0–100, higher scores indicate better diet quality). We tested whether there were differences in diet quality across education, income, and food security categories, and whether any differences changed over time, using weighted linear regression models accounting for the complex survey design and adjusted for age, gender, and race/ethnicity.ResultsTwenty nine percent of US adults with diabetes had less than a high school diploma, 17% had income < 100% of federal poverty level, and 15% reported food insecurity. Average adjusted HEI score increased from 49.4 to 52.4 over the study period (p for trend = 0.003). We observed differences in HEI between high and low education (4.1, 95% CI 3.0–5.3), high and low income (3.7, 95%CI 2.4–5.0) and food secure relative to food insecure (2.1, 95% CI 0.8–3.3). These differences did not improve over time for education (p = 0.56), income (p = 0.65) or food security (p = 0.39) categories.ConclusionsDiet quality for adults with diabetes in the U.S. has improved overall; however, substantial disparities exist and have not improved. A concerted effort to improve diet quality in vulnerable groups may be needed.

Closing the Poor-Rich Gap in Contraceptive Use in Rwanda: Understanding the Underlying Mechanisms.

Evidence suggests that as Rwanda has strengthened its family planning program, disparities in contraceptive use by socioeconomic status have narrowed. However, the changes in these gaps, and the mechanisms that underlie them, are not well understood. Data from the 2005, 2010 and 2015 Rwanda Demographic and Health Surveys on 19,028 in-union women aged 15-49 were analyzed to examine trends in socioeconomic disparities in contraceptive use. Descriptive statistics and multivariate regression with interaction terms were used to identify changes in these disparities, as well as to describe trends in desired fertility, and in types and sources of contraceptives used. Between 2005 and 2015, the prevalence of modern contraceptive use rose from 11% to 48%. In the regression analysis, interaction terms indicated that prevalence increased to a lesser extent among women who were wealthy, had a least a secondary education or lived in urban areas than among those who were poor, were uneducated or lived in rural areas (odds ratios, 0.5-0.7). In parallel, declines in desired fertility were greater among women with no education than among those with at least a secondary education (by 0.7 vs. 0.5 children); among the poorest than the richest women (by 1.0 vs. 0.5 children); and among rural than urban residents (by 0.9 vs. 0.4 children). The shrinking of gaps in contraceptive use by socioeconomic status coincided with narrowing of disparities in demand for children and with improvements in family planning services, suggesting that disadvantaged populations may have especially benefited from public programs to increase contraceptive access.

Trends in Socioeconomic Disparities in Obesity Prevalence among Low-Income Children Aged 2-4 Years in Los Angeles County, 2003-2014.

Obesity prevalence among low-income preschool-aged children in the United States decreased between 2010 and 2014. However, this decreasing trend may be varied across socioeconomic subgroups. This study examined trends in obesity prevalence among low-income children from 2003 to 2014 by child's age and household and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES). This study used administrative data for all children, aged 2-4 years, participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in Los Angeles County (LAC) during the years 2003-2014. Obesity was defined as having a BMI ≥95th percentile of CDC's age- and sex-specific growth charts. Household income and household educational attainment were indicators of household SES. Neighborhood median household income was an indicator of neighborhood SES. Childhood obesity prevalence increased sharply from 15.7% in 2003 to 19.1% in 2005, and remained constant until 2010, when it started decreasing. During most years, the prevalence of obesity was higher among the lowest SES groups. Despite the recent decreasing trend, the 2014 estimates were still generally higher than the 2003 levels except among some low-income children living in less-poor and more-educated households. The decreasing trend between 2010 and 2014 among WIC-participating children in LAC is encouraging and mirrors national trends among WIC-participating children. However, continued efforts should be made to focus obesity prevention efforts on low-income children, especially those who are the most vulnerable as they have experienced significant gains in obesity since 2003.

Trends in the Prevalence and Disparity in Cognitive Limitations of Americans 55-69 Years Old.

To determine whether the prevalence of cognitive limitation (CL) among Americans ages 55 to 69 years changed between 1998 and 2014, and to assess the trends in socioeconomic disparities in CL among groups defined by race/ethnicity, education, income, and wealth. Logistic regression using 1998-2014 data from the biennial Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative data set. CL is defined as a score of 0-11 on a 27-point cognitive battery of items focused on memory. Socioeconomic status (SES) measures are classified as quartiles. In models controlling for age, gender, and previous cognitive testing, we find no significant change over time in the overall prevalence of CL, widening disparities in limitation by income and, in some cases, wealth, and improvements among non-Hispanic whites but not other racial/ethnic groups. Among people 55-69, rates of CL are many times higher for groups with lower SES than those with higher SES, and recent trends show little indication that the gaps are narrowing.

Trends in socioeconomic disparities in a rapid under-five mortality transition: a longitudinal study in the United Republic of Tanzania.

ObjectiveTo explore trends in socioeconomic disparities and under-five mortality rates in rural parts of the United Republic of Tanzania between 2000 and 2011.MethodsWe used longitudinal data on births, deaths, migrations, maternal educational attainment and household characteristics from the Ifakara and Rufiji health and demographic surveillance systems. We estimated hazard ratios (HR) for associations between mortality and maternal educational attainment or relative household wealth, using Cox hazard regression models.FindingsThe under-five mortality rate declined in Ifakara from 132.7 deaths per 1000 live births (95% confidence interval, CI: 119.3–147.4) in 2000 to 66.2 (95% CI: 59.0–74.3) in 2011 and in Rufiji from 118.4 deaths per 1000 live births (95% CI: 107.1–130.7) in 2000 to 76.2 (95% CI: 66.7–86.9) in 2011. Combining both sites, in 2000–2001, the risk of dying for children of uneducated mothers was 1.44 (95% CI: 1.08–1.92) higher than for children of mothers who had received education beyond primary school and in 2010–2011, the HR was 1.18 (95% CI: 0.90–1.55). In contrast, mortality disparities between richest and poorest quintiles worsened in Rufiji, from 1.20 (95% CI: 0.99–1.47) in 2000–2001 to 1.48 (95% CI: 1.15–1.89) in 2010–2011, while in Ifakara, disparities narrowed from 1.30 (95% CI: 1.09–1.55) to 1.15 (95% CI: 0.95–1.39) in the same period.ConclusionWhile childhood survival has improved, mortality disparities still persist, suggesting a need for policies and programmes that both reduce child mortality and address socioeconomic disparities.

Abstract P388: Trends in Socioeconomic Disparities in Ideal Cardiovascular Health: NHANES 1999–2006

Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) has been shown to be associated with many cardiovascular (CV) risk factors. Prior studies have identified differences by SES, but have not summarized trends in these disparities across multiple SES subgroups, which could allow us to assess the extent to which we are achieving disparity-related goals. Methods: We used NHANES Surveys from cycles 1999–2000, 2001–2002, 2003–2004, and 2005–2006 to examine the age-adjusted prevalence of ideal levels of CV health components by SES. Ideal levels of BMI, cholesterol, glucose, blood pressure, diet, physical activity and smoking were defined according to the AHA 2020 strategic goals. SES was defined by poverty: income ratio and categorized as &lt;1.00, 1.00-2.99, and 3.00+. Both absolute (Absolute Concentration Index- ACI) and relative measures (Relative Concentration Index -RCI) of disparities were calculated, all calculations were weighted by population share. The percentage change in disparities relative to 1999–2000 was examined. Results: Age-adjusted rates of ideal CV health components and the percentage change from 1999–2006 varied by SES (see Table). Among women, disparities in the prevalence rates of ideal levels of CV risk factors have increased between SES groups from 1999 through 2006. Among men, disparities in blood pressure (ACI=503%, RCI=477%) and diet (ACI=405%, RCI=143%) have increased most dramatically. More moderate increases were seen in disparities in smoking and cholesterol for men. Disparities in BMI and physical activity remained relatively constant among men throughout the study period. Findings were generally similar for both absolute and relative measures of disparities. Conclusions: Representative national data on these summary measures of disparities suggest that disparities between SES groups have increased among men. Understanding the issues underlying these increasing disparities and addressing them will be critical to improving the cardiovascular health of all Americans by 2020 and beyond.

Trends in socioeconomic disparities in the utilization of dental care in Brazil and Sweden

To describe trends in socioeconomic disparities in utilization of dental care. We obtained cross-sectional data from Sweden in the period 1968-2000 and from Brazil in 1986 and 2002 for 16 state capitals. The outcome was the percentage of people who reported that they had visited the dentist in the last 12 months, calculated for a higher and a lower income group and stratified by sex, age (two groups: young and adults) and dental status. Adjusted prevalence differences and prevalence ratios were produced using Poisson regression. In Brazil, there was a decline in use of dental care among the 15-19 year olds in the period 1986-2002, but not among the 35-44 year olds. In Sweden, there was a decline among the young and adults between 1991 and 2000. Overall, socioeconomic disparities in use of dental services between the higher and the lower economic groups showed a decline in both countries. The reduction in disparities among young Brazilians was 1.1 percentage points per year (p < 0.01), but among the other age groups the decline was not significant (p>0.01). In the last surveys, the gap remained in both countries and age groups (p < 0.01). The recent decline in utilization of dental care and in the socioeconomic gap may mirror improvements in oral health. However, there are still relevant and persistent disparities in utilization of dental care in both countries, with a higher proportion of people of higher socioeconomic status visiting the dentist.

Trends in socioeconomic disparities in oral health in Brazil and Sweden

To describe the dynamics of trends in socioeconomic disparities in oral health in Brazil and Sweden among adults, to assess whether trends follow expected patterns according to the inverse equity hypothesis. In Sweden, we obtained nationally representative data for the years 1968, 1974, 1981, 1991 and 2000, and in Brazil, for 16 state capitals in 1986 and in 2002. Trends in the prevalence of 'edentulism' and of 'teeth in good conditions' were described in two groups aged 35-44 with lower and higher economic standards, respectively. There was an annual decline in disparities in 'edentulism' of 0.4 percentage points (pp) (95% CI = 0.2-0.7) in Brazil and 0.7pp (95% CI = 0.5-0.9) in Sweden, as a result of improvements in both income groups. Concerning 'teeth in good conditions', in Brazil, there was improvement only in the higher income group and absolute disparities have increased (0.5pp annually), while in Sweden, there was a nonsignificant decrease (0.3pp annually) with improvements in both groups. Since 1991 in Sweden and in 2002 in Brazil, our measures of socioeconomic disparities in 'edentulism' were not statistically significant. Trends did not differ by sex or dental visit. Despite improvements in both income groups and a decrease in disparities in 'edentulism', the poorer group in Brazil has seen no improvement in 'teeth in good conditions' and disparities have increased. It appears that Brazil and Sweden reflect different stages of trend for 'teeth in good conditions' and the same stages for 'edentulism', represented by the inverse equity hypothesis.

Trends in Socioeconomic Disparities in Organized and Opportunistic Gastric Cancer Screening in Korea (2005-2009)

A growth of consensus and increasing activities related to organized cancer screening programs has occurred in Korea since 1999. It is important to assess disparities in the fight against cancer, and it is crucial to identify particular groups that may be experiencing a high burden of cancer-related illness. Data from 8,160 men and women ages >40 years from the 2005 to 2009 Korean National Cancer Screening Survey were used to analyze the relationship between socioeconomic position and receiving upper gastrointestinal series or upper endoscopy within the past 2 years. We used absolute and relative concentration indexes, that is, summary measures of disparity based on both rate differences and rate ratios. For organized screening, the education disparity declined, but the income disparity index increased, indicating that participation in organized screening was relatively more concentrated among the lower-income groups. For opportunistic screening, income and education disparities increased due to the widening of socioeconomic differences. The results of this study suggested progress toward socioeconomic disparity-related goals in organized screening for gastric cancer. However, the income disparity trends in organized screening may change in a manner similar to those in opportunistic screening in the future because of the much faster rate of organized screening uptake by those higher on the socioeconomic scale. This study addresses the routine monitoring of coverage of screening among different socioeconomic groups and could be used to inform policies to reduce disparity in coverage.

Temporal trends in area socioeconomic disparities in breast-cancer incidence and mortality, 1988–2005

Since an overarching goal of Healthy People 2010 was to eliminate health disparities, we determined temporal trends in socioeconomic disparities in five breast-cancer indicators (in situ, stage I, lymph-node positive, and locally advanced breast-cancer incidence, and breast-cancer mortality) by county socioeconomic deprivation using 1988-2005 population-based breast-cancer data. Using 1988-2005 data from women aged 40 and older from 200 counties in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program, we examined trends in temporal disparities in the five breast-cancer indicators across quartiles of county socioeconomic deprivation. County-level trends were summarized using the estimated annual percentage change. Observed county rates were smoothed using Bayesian hierarchical spatiotemporal methods to calculate measures of absolute and relative disparity (using absolute and relative concentration indices) and their changes over time. Large increases in in situ breast cancer rates since 1988 were observed for each of the deprivation quartiles. Absolute and relative disparity both increased over time, suggesting increasing disparities across levels of county deprivation. Absolute and relative concentration indices were near zero for the other four breast-cancer indicators, suggesting no disparities among the four quartiles of county deprivation during 1988-2005. Efforts to target counties aimed at increasing breast-cancer screening based on their level of deprivation will not likely be beneficial.

Socioeconomic Position and Cardiovascular Disease in Adults with and Without Diabetes: United States Trends, 1997–2005

Diabetes and its cardiovascular complications are more common in adults of low socioeconomic position (SEP). In the US, the past decade has seen the establishment of many programs to reduce cardiovascular risk in persons with diabetes, but their effect on socioeconomic disparities is uncertain. We sought to investigate recent time trends in socioeconomic disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) among persons with and without diabetes. Two hundred fifty-five thousand nine hundred sixty-six individuals aged 25 years or older included in the National Health Interview Survey between 1997 and 2005. Educational attainment was used as a marker for SEP and self-reported history of CVD as the main outcome. Educational disparities were measured using prevalence rate ratios (PRR) and the relative index of inequalities (RII). Among adults with diabetes, CVD prevalence was persistently higher in those who did not complete high school (HS) than in college graduates (adjusted PRR [aPRR] 1.20, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.05-1.38 in 1997-1999, and aPRR 1.12, 95% CI 1.00-1.25 in 2003-2005). However, the HS vs. college graduates disparity in CVD declined from 1997-1999 (aPRR 1.20, 95% CI 1.04-1.37) to 2003-2005 (aPRR 1.01, 95% CI 0.90-1.12). Among adults without diabetes educational disparities in CVD widened markedly over time. Concurrently with improvements in diabetes management, the widening of socioeconomic health disparities has remained limited in the diabetic population during the past decade. This provides evidence for the potential impact of improvements in disparities in health care access and process, such as experienced among persons with diabetes, in limiting socioeconomic health disparities.

Trends in socioeconomic disparities in health care quality in four countries

To provide a targeted portrait of socioeconomic disparities in health care quality in four countries and how those disparities have changed over time. Within each country, comparisons between the highest and lowest quintiles of socioeconomic status were made to determine if disparities exist and if any observed disparities have been decreasing over a 5-year period. Small geographic areas in Canada, England, New Zealand and the United States. Data were obtained by working with national health statistics agencies in each country. There were socioeconomic disparities in health care quality and health status for most of the indicators studied in all four countries. The analysis included nine quality indicators in four countries, for a total of thirty-six observations. Twenty-six observations had a ratio of highest to lowest socioeconomic quintile of <0.95 or >1.05. These disparities generally persisted over time. The relative difference between the highest and lowest quintile decreased over time in eight of the twenty-one observations with time-series data available. The fact that disparities in a variety of indicators exist in four very different health systems underscores the importance of factors common to the four systems or factors outside the health system. Some successful strategies for reducing disparities could potentially be learned from the few examples of success in these countries.

Disparities in Free Time Inactivity in the United States: Trends and Explanations

What accounts for trends in socioeconomic disparities in physical activity during free time? Results from four national time-use studies between 1965 and 1999 suggest that there are increasing socioeconomic disparities in passive but not active free-time activities. The author evaluates several explanations for these trends. First, the least educated adults had more free time in 1999 than in 1965, and they spend nearly all this extra free time in home settings where the most common passive activities occur (e.g., television viewing). Second, less educated adults had less income per minute of free time in 1999 than in 1965, a trend that combines with increasing supply and reduced price of important passive choices to create economic incentives for passive activity. Third, the difference between low and high educated adults in the mediation of children's viewing habits has increased, an indication of rising socioeconomic disparities in tastes and stigma for this passive activity choice. Finally, historical data suggest that these changes in the use of free time are not simply free market outcomes but also consequences of political decisions favoring television infrastructure, auto-dependent built environments, and disinvestment in public recreation.

Trends in Socioeconomic Disparities in Stroke Mortality in Six European Countries between 1981-1985 and 1991-1995

This study assesses whether stroke mortality trends have been less favorable among lower than among higher socioeconomic groups. Longitudinal data on mortality by socioeconomic status were obtained for Finland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England/Wales, and Turin, Italy. Data covered the entire population or a representative sample. Stroke mortality rates were calculated for the period 1981-1995. Changes in stroke mortality rate ratios were analyzed using Poisson regression and compared with rate ratios in ischemic heat disease mortality. Trends in stroke mortality were generally as favorable among lower as among higher socioeconomic groups, such that socioeconomic disparities in stroke mortality persisted and remained of a similar magnitude in the 1990s as in the 1980s. In Norway, however, occupational disparities in stroke mortality significantly widened, and a nonsignificant increase was observed in some countries. In contrast, disparities in ischemic heart disease mortality widened throughout this period in most populations. Improvements in hypertension prevalence and treatment may have contributed to similar stroke mortality declines in all socioeconomic groups in most countries. Socioeconomic disparities in stroke mortality generally persisted and may have widened in some populations, which fact underlines the need to improve preventive and secondary care for stroke among the lower socioeconomic groups.