Waste Electrical And Electronic Equipment Treatment Research Articles

Eco-Friendly Electrowinning for Metals Recovery from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

The amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has been intensely increasing over the recent decades. In this view, the efficient recovery of metals from WEEE will allow a secure supply of raw materials and will contribute to a circular economy. Among many factors currently affecting the contribution of recycling, is the lack of suitable technologies for WEEE treatment in an environmentally friendly way. Current trends in eco-friendly technologies applied for gold, silver, copper, and tin recovery by electrowinning are reviewed in this paper. In addition, a case study on the perspectives of tin electrowinning has been evaluated. Tin can be present in rather high quantities in WEEE; moreover, its price is about three times higher than that for copper. The electrorecovery of tin has been carried out in cooperation with JSC “Elektronikos perdirbimo technologijos”. The eco-friendly process based on electrowinning from citric acid-containing leachates is elaborated. The citrate-based solutions have been chosen because citric acid is considered to be an environmentally friendly component. A high deposition rate and current efficiency have been achieved at a deposition potential −0.85 V at 60 °C. However, additional steps would be beneficial to diminish the interference of metals present in the scraps, such as Pb(II) and Cu(II), on tin electrorecovery.

Household E-Waste Management: A Case Study of Wroclaw, Poland

Improper collection and processing of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) pose a serious threat to the environment and prevent the recovery of valuable materials. Due to the decreasing availability of resources and production materials, the relevance of WEEE recycling has increased. WEEE should be seen as an important source of raw materials for European economies. Moreover, e-waste recycling has a positive impact on the environment by limiting energy use and CO2 emissions during ore processing. The objective of this study was the analysis of the product use times, the reasons for purchasing new devices, and the consumers’ behavior, knowledge, and awareness concerning WEEE collection and treatment. This study discusses these issues based on a survey on electronic waste management in Wroclaw (Poland). The results from 495 questionnaire respondents indicated a shortening use time of many types of electronic and electric equipment (EEE). The “failure of the device” was the primary reason respondents replaced their products. It was indicated by 90% of the respondents. In many cases, the repair of devices was unprofitable. The most important factor determining the purchase of new devices was their price. The environmental factors, mainly those giving economic benefits, were also considered. Despite the implementation of the extended producer responsibility, the functioning model of WEEE collection has proven to be ineffective. A significant amount of small WEEE ended up in waste bins. For this reason, the willingness of residents to pay an additional fee for WEEE collection was also estimated. The results indicated that campaigns to increase residents’ awareness of WEEE management should continue.

An overview study on management and implementation of WEEE in China.

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) which contains various valuable and harmful materials is an inevitable waste in modern society. In order to resolve the pollution problems associated with WEEE treatment, a WEEE management system has been established in China. The main role of importers and manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is to pay the treatment fees to facilitate the WEEE recycling in China. The announced treatment and subsidy fee is given by set, not by the weight of WEEE. There is no lesser green treatment fee for the producers which can produce environmentally friendly EEE in China. Also, the recovery of refrigerants from the foaming agent of refrigerators is not required in China. In total, 45 million sets of recycled WEEE were certified in 2020, a year that contains the most updated data. Among them, 48%, 14%, 20%, 10% and 8% are for TV, refrigerator, washing machine, computer and air conditioners, respectively. The spatial analysis indicates that the WEEE recycling activities are mainly concentrated on the mid-east and east regions of China. It also can be concluded that the certified amount of each province has higher positive correlation with provincial population than provincial GDP per capita and green recovery rate. It also clearly notes that the amount of recycled air conditioner is the lowest for each province. Thus, more effort should be conducted to increase the recycling of scrapped air conditioner in China.

Enhancement of WEEE Management Practices in MTN Phone Village, Rumukurushi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Informal recycling has been a source of challenges to a mobile telephone network (MTN) phone village in Rumukurushi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, and several locations in developing countries. In order to bring a lasting solution to the menace of informal recycling in this location, the study proposed a new waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management system. The system comprises the application of two key concepts. The first concept includes limiting the activities of informal recyclers to WEEE collection only. This implies WEEE treatment, dismantling, etc., are carried out by government-approved agencies and experts. The second concept involves the application of the just-in-time (JIT) management concept for managing WEEE. The concept ensures that WEEE is only requested from the recycler or the individuals in possession of it and only on demand. The study adopted a qualitative research approach. Data collection and analysis were achieved via semi-structured phone interviews and thematic analysis, respectively. The outcome of the study limits the activities of the informal recyclers to WEEE collection. Informal recyclers gain revenue from collection. A reduction in the waiting time of workers and WEEE storage space is achieved. This offers safety, efficiency, and an increased productivity. This will help to revolutionise the WEEE management system in the location.

WEEE treatment and system management in Italy and Serbia: A comparison.

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) represent one of the growing waste streams in Europe, whose content of hazardous substances and valuable materials focus on how it is handled. However, there are differences between countries regarding e-waste management system in Europe. This paper analyses and presents data regarding the e-waste management system in Italy, one of the founding countries of the EU and Serbia - EU candidate country. Within this work, the following aspects were considered: legislative framework and EU directive goals in terms of e-waste, institutional setup, collection system, and existing recycling and treatment technologies. In addition, material flow analysis is used to model mass balance within WEEE treatment plants in both countries. Finally, through assessment and comparison of current systems in both countries, problems and shortages of Serbia's e-waste management system are addressed.

Process development options for electronic waste fractionation to achieve maximum material value recovery.

Revised legislation and bans on imports of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) into many Asian countries for treatment are driving the need for more efficient WEEE fractionation in Europe by expanding the capacity of treatment plants and improving the percentage recovery of materials of economic value. Data from a key stakeholder survey and consultation are combined with the results of a detailed literature survey to provide weighted matrix input into multi-criteria decision analysis calculations to carry out the following tasks: (a) assess the relative importance of 12 process options against the 6 industry-derived in-process economic potential criteria, that is, increase in product quality, increase in recycling rate, increase in process capacity, decrease in labour costs, decrease in energy costs and decrease in disposal costs; and (b) rank 25 key technologies that have been selected as being the most likely to benefit the efficient sorting of WEEE. The results indicate that the first stage in the development of any total system to achieve maximum economic recovery of materials from WEEE has to be the selection and application of appropriate fractionation process technologies to concentrate valuable components such as critical metals into the smallest possible fractions to achieve their recovery while minimising the disposal costs of low-value products. The stakeholder-based study has determined the priority for viable technical process developments for efficient WEEE fractionation and highlighted the economic and technical improvements that have to be made in the treatment of WEEE.

How to motivate the producers’ green innovation in WEEE recycling in China? – An analysis based on evolutionary game theory

In an effort to regulate waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) recycling, the Chinese government has issued China-WEEE regulations and a fund policy. In accordance with the 2012 fund policy, the government collects funds from producers and subsidizes recycling enterprises. However, this policy has encountered difficulties. The 2016 White Paper on WEEE Recycling, Treatment and Reuse states that while the funds collected from producers were 2.61 billion Yuan, the subsidies provided to recycling enterprises were 4.714 billion Yuan, which is a gap of 2.104 billion Yuan. In addition, this policy did not incentivize producers to invest in WEEE recycling. Our paper aims to answering the following questions: (1) What is the impact of the current WEEE processing fund policy? (2) How can producers’ green innovation in WEEE recycling be promoted? We use evolutionary game theory to investigate the strategies used by producers and recyclers and explore their evolutionary behaviors under two policies: the 2012 fund policy (the current policy) and the Fund Relief Policy (a newly designed policy). The results indicate that the Fund Relief Policy can motivate producers’ green innovation behavior, improve the profitability of recyclers, and alleviate the financial pressure on government to a certain extent.

Estimating job creation potential of compliant WEEE pre-treatment in Ireland

While significant focus has been placed on the environmental and health impacts of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) treatment, a gap exists with respect to job creation in WEEE treatment. The creation of employment opportunities, and especially of decent work, is an important factor in the growing green and circular economies. This research investigates potential job creation in the Irish WEEE pre-treatment sector by examining the labour requirements at a certified e-recycling facility which conducts all necessary pre-treatment processes, as detailed in the WEEE Directive, and is currently treating 75% of Ireland's WEEE. The study developed and executed a method of estimating the mass of WEEE associated with full-time job equivalencies per category treated. Through observation and measurement of the methods and time required for each of the pre-treatment steps and using categorisations of WEEE established by United Nations University to assign weights per unit, it was determined that between 338 and 1,967 tonnes were required to equate with one full-time job for the categories large household appliances (LHA), CRT/LCD/LED screens, microwave ovens, and mixed waste. Subsequently, the results were applied in order to estimate the foregone jobs due to untreated WEEE arising in scrap metal collections. It was found that diversion of this waste to a WEEE pre-treatment facility would result in the creation of more than 12 jobs. This research opens doors to further investigate job creation across European Union (EU) member states and globally using the straightforward and consistently applicable and adaptable methods developed here.

Characterizing the Urban Mine—Simulation-Based Optimization of Sampling Approaches for Built-in Batteries in WEEE

Comprehensive knowledge of built-in batteries in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is required for sound and save WEEE management. However, representative sampling is challenging due to the constantly changing composition of WEEE flows and battery systems. Necessary knowledge, such as methodologically uniform procedures and recommendations for the determination of minimum sample sizes (MSS) for representative results, is missing. The direct consequences are increased sampling efforts, lack of quality-assured data, gaps in the monitoring of battery losses in complementary flows, and impeded quality control of depollution during WEEE treatment. In this study, we provide detailed data sets on built-in batteries in WEEE and propose a non-parametric approach (NPA) to determine MSS. For the pilot dataset, more than 23 Mg WEEE (6500 devices) were sampled, examined for built-in batteries, and classified according to product-specific keys (UNUkeys and BATTkeys). The results show that 21% of the devices had battery compartments, distributed over almost all UNUkeys considered and that only about every third battery was removed prior to treatment. Moreover, the characterization of battery masses (BM) and battery mass shares (BMS) using descriptive statistical analysis showed that neither product- nor battery-specific characteristics are given and that the assumption of (log-)normally distributed data is not generally applicable. Consequently, parametric approaches (PA) to determine the MSS for representative sampling are prone to be biased. The presented NPA for MSS using data-driven simulation (bootstrapping) shows its applicability despite small sample sizes and inconclusive data distribution. If consistently applied, the method presented can be used to optimize future sampling and thus reduce sampling costs and efforts while increasing data quality.

Ultrafine, fine and coarse airborne particle mass concentration in workplaces

As epidemiological studies have shown a significant association between exposure to particles and mortality and morbidity, depending on their different deposition efficiency in the pulmonary region, size-segregated particulate matter (PM) samples were collected in workplaces where high PM concentrations were expected and compared with the results from urban and background atmospheres.We investigated the following workplaces: an analytical chemistry laboratory, a wastewater treatment plant, a livestock farming activity, a municipal solid waste composting plant, and a waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) Treatment Facility. The highest PM concentrations were found in the last three sites.Ultrafine PM (PM0.1: aerodynamic diameter less than 0.1 μm) mass concentrations also proved to be especially high in the livestock farming activity, in the municipal solid waste composting plant, and in the WEEE treatment facility, ranging between 4.7 and 19.8 μg m−3 as mean values, suggesting that this particulate fraction should be monitored and controlled. On the other hand, in both natural and urban environments, ultrafine particles occurred at concentrations 0.1–0.3 times the workplace values. It would have been interesting to determine the increase in cancer risk due to ultrafine particles, but cohort studies on PM0.1 are lacking. Therefore, effects on the workers were investigated starting from the lifetime average daily PM2.5 dose. Even with this limitation, the results show that people working in municipal solid waste composting plant and in a WEEE Treatment Facility are exposed to a not negligible additional lifetime risk on respect citizens.

Recovery opportunities of valuable and critical elements from WEEE treatment residues by hydrometallurgical processes.

Due to the increasing demand of metals by industry and the limited availability of natural resources, the secondary supply of these elements from discarded products, such as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), is an important strategy for pursuing a sustainable development. Nevertheless, the complex and heterogeneous composition of this waste stream stands as one of the main drawbacks in the definition of innovative recovery processes. This study investigated the recovery potential of a multi-step leaching process to extract the strategic metals, namely precious metals and rare earth elements (REEs), from the dust produced during the industrial shredding treatment of WEEE. Using a first double-oxidative step with sulfuric acid, most rare earth elements contained in the dust were dissolved at high percentages. Moreover, around 50% of gold was extracted in a second leaching step using 0.25M thiourea, in a solid to liquid ratio of 0.2g/70mL, at 600rpm. In this regard, the optimum operating conditions were studied by a 23 full factorial design. Experimental results address the definition of a novel approach, pursuing the recovery of resources of great industrial interest from the residues originating from WEEE mechanical treatments typically performed at large scale. As this dust fraction is not sent for recovery but currently disposed, the proposed recycling strategy promotes the diversion of waste from landfill while reducing the need for virgin materials via lower-impact metallurgical processes.

WEEE Treatment in Developing Countries: Environmental Pollution and Health Consequences-An Overview.

In the last few decades, the rapid technological evolution has led to a growing generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Not rarely, it has been exported from industrialized to developing countries, where it represents a secondary source of valuable materials such as gold, copper, and silver. The recycling of WEEE is often carried out without any environmental and health protection. This paper reviews recent literature dealing with the informal treatment of WEEE in developing regions, gathering and analyzing data on concentration of both inorganic and organic pollutants in the environment. Open burning practices are revealed as most polluting ‘technology’, followed by mechanical treatment and leaching. Significant levels of pollutants have been detected in human bodies, both children and adults, working in or living in areas with informal WEEE treatment.

Evaluating the carbon footprint of WEEE management in the UK

The UK produces an estimated 2 Mt of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) annually and the management of this waste has become a foremost environmental issue in the UK. Whilst the collection, transportation and treatment of WEEE contributes to climate change due to its considerable energy and material requirements, the effective recovery and reuse or recycling of WEEE can contribute towards a net climate benefit. Here, we present a combined material flow analysis and carbon footprint approach (based on a bespoke calculator tool) for quantifying the flows of WEEE through a national waste management system and evaluating their potential climate impacts. We apply this approach to analyse the WEEE management system for the UK from 2010 to 2030 using prospective scenario analysis and assess the carbon footprint of their management pathways. Reuse was identified as the most favourable end-of-life management option in terms of potential climate impact, followed by recycling, with landfill identified as being the least favourable option. Overall, current end-of-life management practices for WEEE in the UK were found to result in a net positive (i.e. beneficial) climatic effect, although this saving was found to reduce when WEEE recycled as non-obligated WEEE was not included. Overall, we recommend that future national policies should focus on formalising indirect WEEE collection pathways to help increase overall collection rates and, thus, reuse and recycling activities.

An Effectiveness Assessment of China's WEEE Treatment Fund.

Policy is essential to the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). In order to present valuable findings for policy improvement, we performed a quantitative effectiveness assessment of China’s WEEE treatment fund from 2012 to 2015. The achievement of the general goal of the WEEE treatment fund was evaluated with various indicators. We calculated the values of all indicators and analyzed the changes in them. The results show that the WEEE treatment fund was important in promoting WEEE collection and recycling activities and has provided great benefits in the form of resources and the environment. Moreover, the authorized enterprises also experienced progress in their development. In a word, the WEEE treatment fund was effective to some extent. However, because of the limited subsidies and other factors, the WEEE treatment fund had different effects on five categories of WEEE. We found that its approach worked best for the TV set. Although the promotional effects on the other four categories of WEEE have been increasingly significant since 2014, there is room for improvement. Fortunately, the subsidy rates have been adjusted by administrations and new subsidies were provided in 2016. As it is crucial for the effectiveness of the WEEE treatment fund, new subsidy rates should be evaluated regularly.

Separation efficiency of valuable and critical metals in WEEE mechanical treatments

Abstract The high demand of rare earth elements (REEs) in electronics industry and their high supply risk owing to the dependence on limited source countries have increased the interest towards Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) as a potential secondary source of these elements, identified as critical metals. Although REEs are present in a wide range of high-tech products in relative low concentrations, the recycling of critical metals from WEEE is regarded as an important opportunity for promoting the conservation of primary resources and preventing waste production. However, the existing systems for WEEE collection and treatment mainly focus on the recovery of base and precious metals while the fate of REEs has not been addressed yet. To this end, the present study aims at evaluating the substance flows of critical metals in WEEE mechanical pre-treatments as these processes, preceding the metallurgical treatments of refining, determine the amount of metals entering the further recovery chain. The separation efficiency of a full scale mechanical process, including a sequential shredding and selection treatment of small WEEE, was investigated assessing the mass balance of both base metals and special metals as well as the quality of the output products. The mass flow analysis revealed that after pre-treatments only a third of precious metals entering the treatment process was conveyed to the target output destined to further recovery and less than 2% of REEs was concentrated in the potentially recyclable metallic fractions, while approximately 80% of these elements was distributed in the dust stream actually destined to landfill. Furthermore, the study pointed out that the fine fraction of the metallic outputs from the sorting process is characterized by a major degree of purity, indicating that both the dust stream and the fine grain fraction could be regarded as secondary sources for the recovery of valuable and critical metals from WEEE.

End-of-life Management of Computers in Brussels: Environmental Comparison of Two Treatment Chains

Driven by environmental concerns and new legal requirements, the targeted collection rates of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are increasing and waste operators seek to expand their collection. In this research, we compare the environmental impacts of two existing end-of-life treatment chains of computers in Brussels based on a life cycle assessment. The first chain is managed by the association responsible for complying to the take-back obligation on behalf of manufacturers in Belgium. The second one is run by work integration social enterprises (WISE) which prioritize reuse and a deeper manual dismantling of WEEE prior to mechanical treatment. The results show that the latter chain provides an environmental advantage up to 69% in comparison to the former thanks to reuse and a higher material recovery rate. Thus, if the first chain increases its collection in detriment of WISE, the global environmental benefits of the treatment of WEEE will decrease.

An updated review and conceptual model for optimizing WEEE management in China from a life cycle perspective

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is a rapidly growing category of solid waste. China is now facing WEEE problems from both growing domestic generation and illegal imports. Currently, the amount of WEEE formally treated has increased steadily in China. The layout of the formal sector has been basically completed. Meanwhile, by controlling illegal disassembly activities, the informal sector has been gradually transformed to formal one. Beginning with the overview of the WEEE recycling industry in China, this paper first lists the latest progress in WEEE management from such aspects as the new edition of China RoHS Directive (Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive), the updated WEEE Treatment List, the updated WEEE fund standard, the revised National Hazardous Waste List, and a brand-new plan on extended producer responsibility. In so doing, we elucidate the current challenges on WEEE management in detail: the imbalance between fund levies and subsidies, the gap in the supervision scope, the homogenization of recycling industry and the lack of life cycle approaches. Finally, a conceptual framework for integrated management of WEEE is proposed from a life cycle perspective. Overall, the life cycle management of WEEE includes three aspects: developing life cycle information for decision-making, implementing life cycle engineering with life cycle tools, and improving WEEE legislation based on life cycle thinking. By providing specific operating strategies, this life cycle framework should help to optimize WEEE management in developing countries where legislation is imperfect and the recycling system is relatively immature.

Generation of domestic waste electrical and electronic equipment on Fernando de Noronha Island: qualitative and quantitative aspects.

The accelerated growth trajectory of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is a matter of concern for governments worldwide. In developing countries, the problem is more complex because municipal waste management is still a challenge for municipalities. Fernando de Noronha Island, an environmentally protected area, has a transfer station for solid waste before it is sent to the final destination abroad, which is different waste management model to most urban areas. In order to check the specifics of management of WEEE, this study aimed to qualitatively and quantitatively evaluate the generation of this type of waste on the main island of Fernando de Noronha, taking into consideration aspects related to consumption habits and handling of waste. During the in situ research, a questionnaire was applied to a sample of 83 households. The results provide a picture of the generation of WEEE for a period of 1year, when a production of 1.3 tons of WEEE was estimated. Relationships between education level and monthly income and between education level and number of plasma/LCD TVs and washing machines were confirmed. Another important result is that only two socioeconomic variables (monthly income and education level) are related to two recycling behavior variables. In addition, the population and government treat WEEE as ordinary waste, ignoring its contaminant potential. Despite the existence of relevant legislation concerning the treatment and disposal of WEEE, additional efforts will be required by the government in order to properly manage this type of waste on the island.

Potential for circular economy in household WEEE management

Circular economy (CE) is considered an alternative for today’s linear business model, and a lifeline to sustainable production and consumption. However, the lack of understanding of the true potentials for CE in many business sectors remains a challenge. In this study, we investigate the potential for reuse and recycling – the two key pathways promoted by CE – for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management. We empirically characterize household WEEE stream in order to explore a) the remaining functionality and reuse potential of end-of-life (EoL) products based on the current market conditions, and b) the recycling potential of EoL products based on their material compositions and existing WEEE treatment chain. For this, a total of 4704 kg WEEE within the collection fractions of ‘small appliances’ and ‘monitors’ was collected in 16 collection cages from eight civic amenity sites in Odense, Denmark. After determining the categorical distribution, all products were inspected individually and their functionality was tested. Further, selected products were dismantled in order to determine their material composition. Building on this investigation, the potential revenues from resale as well as from material recovery were estimated. With 22% and 7% of fully functional products in the fractions ‘small appliances’ and ‘monitors’ respectively, our results suggest resale value up to €247 per cage of the collected household WEEE. The existing WEEE management system, which focuses only on material recovery, does not exploit other EoL options. A better system designed to reclaim the remaining functionality and tailored material recovery from the EoL products thus has a large potential for increased revenue.

A Stochastic Programming Approach with Improved Multi-Criteria Scenario-Based Solution Method for Sustainable Reverse Logistics Design of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

Today, the increased public concern about sustainable development and more stringent environmental regulations have become important driving forces for value recovery from end-of-life and end-of use products through reverse logistics. Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) contains both valuable components that need to be recycled and hazardous substances that have to be properly treated or disposed of, so the design of a reverse logistics system for sustainable treatment of WEEE is of paramount importance. This paper presents a stochastic mixed integer programming model for designing and planning a generic multi-source, multi-echelon, capacitated, and sustainable reverse logistics network for WEEE management under uncertainty. The model takes into account both economic efficiency and environmental impacts in decision-making, and the environmental impacts are evaluated in terms of carbon emissions. A multi-criteria two-stage scenario-based solution method is employed and further developed in this study for generating the optimal solution for the stochastic optimization problem. The proposed model and solution method are validated through a numerical experiment and sensitivity analyses presented later in this paper, and an analysis of the results is also given to provide a deep managerial insight into the application of the proposed stochastic optimization model.