Saline Sewage Treatment Research Articles

A low-carbon-emission photoelectrochemical system using Ov-Fe2O3@BiVO4 photoanode for integrated multiple pollutant removal and energy harvesting from real saline sewage

Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) face challenges due to high carbon emissions and energy consumption. Herein, a low-carbon-emission photoelectrochemical (PEC) system using an oxygen-vacancy-rich Fe2O3@BiVO4 (Ov-Fe2O3@BiVO4) photoanode that is aimed at replacing biological treatment and disinfection, is developed to simultaneously remove organic compounds, ammonia (NH4+-N), and bacteria from real saline sewage (after primary treatment) while generating green H2. The PEC system demonstrates remarkable performance in the treatment of real saline sewage, as evidenced by the fact that the treated sewage is able to meet local discharge standards of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia-N, and Escherichia coli (E. coli) after two hours of operation under simulated solar light at 2.0 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). Most importantly, it generates 11.51 mol/m3 of green H2 (equal to 0.458 kWh/m3 of electricity) and results in notable reductions of 76.7 % in scope 1 emissions (direct GHG emissions) and 62.5 % in total carbon emissions compared to conventional WWTPs. The scavenging tests and estimated steady-state concentrations of reactive species indicate that Cl•, ClO•, and Cl2•− are the primary contributors to the degradation of organic pollutants, while ClO• is dominant in converting ammonia to N2. Additionally, the excellent reusability, stability and easy regeneration of the Ov-Fe2O3@BiVO4 photoanode and its good performance in treating different batches of real sewage guarantee the high practicability of the PEC system. This study has successfully validated the PEC system as a low-carbon-emission technology approach for saline sewage treatment coupled with green H2 generation, demonstrating its enormous practical potential.

Integrating Reactive Chlorine Species Generation with H2 Evolution in a Multifunctional Photoelectrochemical System for Low Operational Carbon Emissions Saline Sewage Treatment.

Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) suffer from high carbon emissions and are inefficient in removing emerging organic pollutants (EOPs). Consequently, we have developed a low operational carbon emissions multifunctional photoelectrochemical (PEC) system for saline sewage treatment to simultaneously remove organic pollutants, ammonia, and bacteria, coupled with H2 evolution. A reduced BiVO4 (r-BiVO4) photoanode with enhanced PEC properties, ascribed to constructing sufficient oxygen vacancies and V4+ species, was synthesized for the aforementioned technique. The PEC/r-BiVO4 process could treat saline sewage to meet local WWTPs' discharge standard in 40 min at 2.0 V vs Ag/AgCl and completely degrade carbamazepine (one of EOPs), coupled with 633 μmol of H2 production; 93.29% reduction in operational carbon emissions and 77.82% decrease in direct emissions were achieved by the PEC/r-BiVO4 process compared with large-scale WWTPs, attributed to the restrained generation of CH4 and N2O. The PEC system activated chloride ions in sewage to generate numerous reactive chlorine species and facilitate •OH production, promoting contaminants removal. The PEC system exhibited operational feasibility at varying pH and total suspended solids concentrations and has outstanding reusability and stability, confirming its promising practical potential. This study proposed a novel PEC reaction for reducing operational carbon emissions from saline sewage treatment.

Modeling of sulfur-driven autotrophic denitrification coupled with Anammox process

While sulfur-driven autotrophic denitrification (SDAD) occurring in the anoxic reactor of the sulfate reduction, autotrophic denitrification and nitrification integrated (SANI) system has been regarded as the main nitrogen removal bioprocess, little is known about the accompanying Anammox bacteria whose presence is made possible by the co-existence of NH4+ and NO2−. Therefore, this work firstly developed an integrated SDAD-Anammox model to describe the interactions between sulfur-oxidizing bacteria and Anammox bacteria. The model was subsequently used to explore the impacts of influent conditions on the reactor performance and microbial community structure of the anoxic reactor. The results revealed that at a relatively low ratio of <1.5 mg S/mg N, Anammox bacteria could survive and even take a dominant position (up to 58.9%). Finally, a modified SANI system configuration based on the effective collaboration between SDAD and Anammox processes was proposed to improve the efficiency of the treatment of sulfate-rich saline sewage.

Energy-Efficient Single-Stage Nitrite Shunt Denitrification with Saline Sewage through Concise Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Supply: Process Performance and Microbial Communities.

Single-stage nitrite shunt denitrification (through nitrite rather than nitrate) with low dissolved oxygen (DO) supply is a better alternative in terms of energy-efficiency, short-footprint, and low C/N-ratio requirement. This study investigates the optimal DO level with temperature effect, with saline sewage at the fixed hydraulic and solids retention times of 8 h and 8 d, respectively. Moreover, 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis corresponding with total nitrogen (TN) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removals in each operating condition were performed. Results showed that DO of 0.3 mg/L at 20 °C achieved over 60.7% and over 97.9% of TN and COD removal, respectively, suggesting that such condition achieved effective nitrite-oxidizing bacteria inhibition and efficient denitrification. An unexpected finding was that sulfur-reducing Haematobacter and nitrogen-fixing Geofilum and Shinella were highly abundant with the copredominance of ammonia-oxidizing Comamonas and Nitrosomonas, nitrite-oxidizing Limnohabitans, and denitrifying Simplicispira, Castellaniella, and Nitratireductor. Further, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) with respect to the operating conditions associated with phenotype prediction via R-based tool Tax4Fun was performed for a preliminary diagnosis of microbial functionality. The effects of DO, temperature, nitrite, and nitrate in various extents toward each predominant microbe were discussed. Collectively, DO is likely pivotal in single-stage nitrite shunt denitrification, as well as microbial communities, for energy-efficient saline sewage treatment.

Metagenomics revealed the phase-related characteristics during rapid development of halotolerant aerobic granular sludge

Efforts to produce aerobic granular sludge (AGS) for high-efficient and stable nutrient removal in high saline wastewaters have gained much attention recently. This study was undertaken to describe the phase-related characteristics of the rapid formation of glucose-fed salt-tolerant AGS (SAGS) generated from common municipal activated sludge using metagenomic approaches. The time needed for SAGS formation is about 11 days in a multi-ion matrix salinity of 3%. There were three distinct developmental phases during sludge maturation which were designated: I) the salinity adaptation phase (days 1–2), II) the particle-size transition phase (days 3–5) and III) the maturation and steady-state phase (days 6–11), respectively. Genome-based analysis revealed that during the phase I, members of the genus Mangrovibacter, which has the potential to secrete extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), dominated during the formation of initial SAGS aggregates. During phase II, fungi of the class Saccharomycetes, in particular the genus Geotrichum, became dominant and provided a matrix for bacterial attachment. This mutualistic interaction supported the rapid development and maintenance of mature SAGS. This work characterizes a robust approach for the rapid development of SAGS for efficient saline sewage treatment and provides unique insight into the granulation mechanism occurring during the development process.

Formation and characterization of the micro-size granular sludge in denitrifying sulfur-conversion associated enhanced biological phosphorus removal (DS-EBPR) process

Denitrifying Sulfur conversion-associated Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal (DS-EBPR) bioprocess has been recently developed for saline sewage treatment. This study investigated the applicability of granulation technology in DS-EBPR by long-term operation (272 days) of a lab-scale reactor to cultivate sludge granules, then analyzed important physicochemical and biological properties. The findings of this research showed that the net P removal and denitrification efficiencies in DS-EBPR were 80% and 98%, respectively. The average particle size was about 100 μm, and the ratio of SVI5 and SVI30 was <1.3, indicating the activated sludge was well aggregated as micro-granules. The dry density was between 32 and 56 mg/mL, and the specific surface area was 28 m2/g, demonstrating good microporous structure. FISH reveals absence of PAOs, but enriched with SRB (predominant) and denitrifying bacteria in the DS-EBPR granular sludge. Overall, this study provided essential characterization information of DS-EBPR granular sludge which can be used for future development.

Retinoids and oestrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals in saline sewage treatment plants: Removal efficiencies and ecological risks to marine organisms

Discharge of partially treated effluent from sewage treatment plants (STPs) is a significant source of chemical contaminants, such as retinoids and oestrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which are continuously input into the marine environments of densely populated and urbanized coastal cities. In this study, we successfully developed three analytical methods to detect and qualify retinoic acids (at-RA, 13c-RA & 9c-RA), their metabolites (at-4-oxo-RA, 13c-4-oxo-RA & 9c-4-oxo-RA), and oestrogenic EDCs using high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Using these methods, we found that the total concentrations of retinoids in the influents and effluents of three saline STPs in Hong Kong were 7.1–29 ng/L and 3.7–9.1 ng/L, respectively, and those of EDCs were 3107–5829 ng/L and 1225–2638 ng/L, respectively. Retinoids were dominated by at-4-oxo-RA or 13c-4-oxo-RA in wastewater, whereas at-RA and 13c-RA were the most abundant in sludge. Alkylphenols and bisphenol A were the dominant EDCs in wastewater, whilst alkylphenols, triclosan, and triclocarban were dominant in sludge. Overall, the sewage treatment processes in the STPs of Hong Kong were not highly efficient in the removal of retinoids and EDCs from wastewater influents, with removal efficiencies in the aqueous phase of 41–82% and 31–79%, respectively. The removals were attributed mainly to sorption and degradation. Due to such limited removal, the effluents from STPs and the adjacent seawaters (i.e., receiving water bodies) still exhibited relatively high concentrations of retinoids (2.0–4.3 ng/L in seawaters) and EDCs (71–260 ng/L in seawaters), which posed medium ecological risks to the coastal marine ecosystem of Hong Kong (i.e., hazard quotients: 0.1–1).

Capability of microalgae for local saline sewage treatment towards biodiesel production

Seawater flushing was introduced in Hong Kong since 1950’s. High salinity has an inhibitory effect on nitrification and biological phosphorus uptake of microorganisms. Therefore, saline sewage has impact on traditional biological wastewater treatment. Saline conditions of domestic wastewater then pose opportunity to use algal technology in wastewater treatment. During the treatment (phycoremediation), biodiesel can be produced. This study aims to give an in-depth investigation and development on application of local microalgal strains on biodiesel production. Dunaliella tertiolecta was selected the appropriate algal species with high potential for phycoremediation then biodiesel production. D.tertiolecta was further investigated by optimizing its growth in different process condition in preliminary effluent as based medium. The optimized process condition were acclimated culture with medium initial cell number (5.0 ×105 cells mL-1), under 5% CO2 aerations in preliminary effluent adjust to 15 psu (denoting practical salinity unit). Results showed that lipid content increased from 30.2% to 42%, and biomass productivity reached 463.3 mg L-1day-1 by Fatty acid Methyl Ester (FAME) profile was found for biodiesel production in optimized stage. The treatment period of preliminary effluent was shortened from 15d in original design (unacclimated culture, low initial cell number (5.0 ×105 cells mL-1), without CO2 aeration) to 4d.

Seawater-based wastewater accelerates development of aerobic granular sludge: A laboratory proof-of-concept

This study aimed to develop an aerobic granular sludge process for the efficient treatment of highly saline wastewater and understand the granulation process in a seawater-based multi-ion matrix. Five identical sequencing batch airlift reactors (SBARs) are used to treat synthetic saline sewage with different proportions of real seawater (0%–100%). The results confirm that aerobic granular sludge can be successfully developed with various proportions of seawater up to 100% and show that seawater not only significantly accelerates granulation but also generates stronger granular structures than does freshwater. The increased presence of gel-forming alginate-like exopolysaccharides in the granules explains why a greater proportion of seawater leads to higher density and improves the cohesive strength of the granules. SEM-EDX analysis further revealed substantial presence of both Ca2+ and Mg2+ phosphate in the granule core as well as in the outer layers providing extra bridging forces in addition to alginate-like exopolysaccharides for accelerating the granule formation and maintaining the structure. It is hoped that this work could explore another approach for saline sewage treatment and bring some clues for the mystery of granulation mechanism.

Assessing the performance and microbial structure of biofilms adhering on aerated membranes for domestic saline sewage treatment

MABR for effective treatment of domestic saline sewage and its microbial community.

Granulation of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria for autotrophic denitrification

Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) was successfully employed for effective autotrophic denitrification and sludge minimization in a full-scale application of saline sewage treatment in Hong Kong. In this study, a Granular Sludge Autotrophic Denitrification (GSAD) reactor was continuously operated over 600 days for SOB granulation, and to evaluate the long-term stability of SOB granules, microbial communities and denitrification efficacy. Sludge granulation initiated within the first 40 days of start-up with an average particle size of 186.4 μm and sludge volume index (SVI5) of 40 mL/g in 5 min. The sludge granules continued to grow reaching a nearly uniform size of mean diameter 1380 ± 20 μm with SVI5 of 30 mL/g during 600 days of GSAD reactor operation at hydraulic retention time of 5 h and nitrate loading rate of 0.33 kg-N/m3/d. The GSAD reactor with SOB granular sludge achieved 93.7 ± 2.1% nitrogen and complete sulfide removal with low sludge yield of 0.15 g-volatile suspended solids (VSS)/g-N, and much lower nitrous oxide (N2O) emission than the heterotrophic denitrifying process. Microbial community analysis using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique revealed that granules were enriched with SOB contributing to autotrophic denitrification. Furthermore, 16S rRNA analysis showed diverse autotrophic denitrification related genera, namely Thiobacillus (32.6%), Sulfurimonas (31.3%), and Arcobacter (0.01%), accounting for 63.9% of total operational taxonomic units at the generic level. No heterotrophic denitrification related genera were detected. The results from this study could provide useful design and operating conditions with respect to SOB sludge granulation and its subsequent application in a full-scale autotrophic denitrification in the Sulfate reduction-Autotrophic denitrification-Nitrification Integrated (SANI) process.

A super high-rate sulfidogenic system for saline sewage treatment

This study proposes a novel approach to resolve the challenging issue of sludge bed clogging in a granular sulfate-reducing upflow sludge bed (GSRUSB) reactor by means of introducing intermittent gas sparging to advance it into a super high-rate anaerobic bioreactor. Over a 196-day lab-scale trial, the GSRUSB system was operated from nominal hydraulic retention time of 4-hr to 40-min and achieved the highest organic loading rate of 13.31 kg COD/m3·day which is substantially greater than the typical loading of 2.0–3.5 kg COD/m3·day in a conventional upflow anaerobic sludge bed reactor treating dilute organic strength wastewater. The average organic removal efficiency and total dissolved sulfide of this system were 90 ± 4.2% and 158 ± 28 mg S/L, while organics residual in the effluent was 34 ± 14 mg COD/L. The control stage (without gas sparging) revealed that the sludge bed clogging happened concomitantly with the significant drop in extracellular polymeric substance content of granular sludge, through relevant chemical measurements and confocal laser scanning microscopy analyses. On the other hand, compared with increasing the effluent recirculation ratio (from 1.4 to 5), the three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics modeling in combination with energy dissipation analysis demonstrated that the gas sparging (at a superficial gas velocity of 0.8 m s−1) can create a 23 times higher liquid shear as well as enhanced particle attrition. Overall, this study not only developed a super high-rate anaerobic bioreactor for saline sewage treatment, but also shed light on the role of intermittent gas sparging in control of sludge bed clogging for anaerobic bioreactors.

Large-scale demonstration of the sulfate reduction autotrophic denitrification nitrification integrated (SANI®) process in saline sewage treatment

Recently, the Sulfate reduction Autotrophic denitrification Nitrification Integrated (SANI®) process was developed for the removal of organics and nitrogen with sludge minimization in the treatment of saline sewage (with a Sulfate-to-COD ratio > 0.5 mg SO42−-S/mg COD) generated from seawater used for toilet flushing or salt water intrusion. Previously investigated in lab- and pilot-scale, this process has now been scaled up to a 800–1000 m3/d full-scale demonstration plant. In this paper, the design and operating parameters of the SANI demo plant built in Hong Kong are analyzed. After a 4-month start-up period, a stable sulfur cycle-based biological nitrogen removal system having a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 12.5 h was developed, thereby reducing the amount of space needed by 30–40% compared with conventional activated sludge (CAS) plants in Hong Kong. The demo plant satisfactorily met the local effluent discharge limits during both the summer and winter periods. In winter (sewage temperature of 21 ± 1 °C), the maximum volumetric loading rates for organic conversion, nitrification, and denitrification were 2 kg COD/(m3·d), 0.39 kg N/(m3·d), and 0.35 kg N/(m3·d), respectively. The biological sludge production rate of SANI process was 0.35 ± 0.08 g TSSproduced/g BOD5 (or 0.19 ± 0.05 g TSS/g COD), which is 60–70% lower than that of the CAS process in Hong Kong. While further process optimization is possible, this study demonstrates the SANI process can be potentially implemented for the treatment of saline sewage.

System evaluation and microbial analysis of a sulfur cycle-based wastewater treatment process for Co-treatment of simple wet flue gas desulfurization wastes with freshwater sewage

A sulfur cycle-based wastewater treatment process, namely the Sulfate reduction, Autotrophic denitrification and Nitrification Integrated process (SANI® process) has been recently developed for organics and nitrogen removal with 90% sludge minimization and 35% energy reduction in the biological treatment of saline sewage from seawater toilet flushing practice in Hong Kong. In this study, sulfate- and sulfite-rich wastes from simple wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD) were considered as a potential low-cost sulfur source to achieve beneficial co-treatment with non-saline (freshwater) sewage in continental areas, through a Mixed Denitrification (MD)–SANI process trialed with synthetic mixture of simple WFGD wastes and freshwater sewage. The system showed 80% COD removal efficiency (specific COD removal rate of 0.26 kg COD/kg VSS/d) at an optimal pH of 7.5 and complete denitrification through MD (specific nitrogen removal rate of 0.33 kg N/kg VSS/d). Among the electron donors in MD, organics and thiosulfate could induce a much higher denitrifying activity than sulfide in terms of both NO3− reduction and NO2− reduction, suggesting a much higher nitrogen removal rate in organics-, thiosulfate- and sulfide-based MD in MD–SANI compared to sulfide alone-based autotrophic denitrification in conventional SANI®. Diverse sulfate/sulfite-reducing bacteria (SRB) genera dominated in the bacterial community of sulfate/sulfite-reducing up-flow sludge bed (SRUSB) sludge without methane producing bacteria detected. Desulfomicrobium-like species possibly for sulfite reduction and Desulfobulbus-like species possibly for sulfate reduction are the two dominant groups with respective abundance of 24.03 and 14.91% in the SRB genera. Diverse denitrifying genera were identified in the bacterial community of anoxic up-flow sludge bed (AnUSB) sludge and the Thauera- and Thiobacillus-like species were the major taxa. These results well explained the successful operation of the lab-scale MD–SANI process.

Evaluation of granular sludge for secondary treatment of saline municipal sewage

This study examined the impact of chemical oxygen demand (COD) loading and dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration on the stability and performance of granular sludge treating high saline municipal sewage. Under high DO concentrations of 4.0–7.0 mg/L, and COD loading rates of 0.98 and 1.55 kg/m3/d, rapid settling granules were established within four weeks of start-up. Under the highest COD load, a reduction in DO lead to the rapid deterioration of the sludge volume index (SVI) and washout of granules due to prolific growth of the filament Thiothrix Type 021N. Conversely, when operated under a lower COD load, a reduction in DO concentration had no adverse impact on the stability of SVI and granules. A decrease in DO also improved nitrogen removal performance, where simultaneous removal of ammonium (98%), total nitrogen (86%) and BOD5 (98%) were achieved when median DO concentrations were between 1.0 and 1.5 mg/L. Phosphate removal was lower than expected, however the level of biological phosphate removal activity observed appeared sufficient to maintain granule stability, even under low DO concentrations. Nitrous oxide emissions were also characterised, which ranged between 2.3 and 6.8% of the total nitrogen load. Our results confirmed that granular sludge is a viable option for the treatment of saline sewage.

Beneficial co-treatment of simple wet flue gas desulphurization wastes with freshwater sewage through development of mixed denitrification–SANI process

Sulphate reduction, autotrophic denitrification and nitrification integrated (SANI) process was developed for saline sewage treatment with 90% sludge minimization. This study is further to develop a new SANI, i.e., mixed denitrification (MD)–SANI for beneficial co-treatment of flue gas desulphurization (FGD) wastes with typical sewage through simple wet FGD and energy-efficient sewage treatment. In order to confirm the potential benefits of MD–SANI process, a lab-scale system was operated with mixtures of sulphite, sulphate and synthetic freshwater sewage. Biological co-reduction of sulphite and sulphate in the anaerobic reactor resulted in sufficient sulphide, thiosulphate and residual volatile fatty acids (VFAs) for efficient MD including autotrophic denitrification (AD) on sulphide, AD on thiosulphate, and heterotrophic denitrification (HD) on VFAs in the subsequent anoxic upflow sludge bed (AnUSB). The MD–SANI process increased denitrification rate by seven-time compared with sulphide-based AD in the original SANI. The AD and HD contributed to 72% and 28% of the MD capacity respectively without accumulation of elemental sulphur or reduced sulphur compounds in the final effluent. The MD–SANI process produced sufficient alkalinity not only for its own consumption in aerobic and anoxic reactors but also for potential reuse in SO2 absorption in simple wet FGD practice. The overall sludge yield of MD–SANI process was determined to be 0.03 kgVSS/kgCOD, inheriting the main feature of SANI process in sludge minimization. All these main findings in this study justify simple wet FGD and support co-treatment of its wastes with freshwater sewage to provide potential benefits for both air pollution control and water industries.

Temperature effect on acetate and propionate consumption by sulfate-reducing bacteria in saline wastewater

Seawater toilet flushing, seawater intrusion in the sewerage, and discharge of sulfate-rich industrial effluents elevates sulfate content in wastewater. The application of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in wastewater treatment is very beneficial; as for example, it improves the pathogen removal and reduces the volume of waste sludge, energy requirement and costs. This paper evaluates the potential to apply biological sulfate reduction using acetate and propionate to saline sewage treatment in moderate climates. Long-term biological sulfate reduction experiments at 10 and 20°C were conducted in a sequencing batch reactor with synthetic saline domestic wastewater. Subsequently, acetate and propionate (soluble organic carbon) conversion rate were determined in both reactors, in the presence of either or both fatty acids. Both acetate and propionate consumption rates by SRB were 1.9 times lower at 10°C than at 20°C. At 10°C, propionate was incompletely oxidized to acetate. At 10°C, complete removal of soluble organic carbon requires a significantly increased hydraulic retention time as compared to 20°C. The results of the study showed that biological sulfate reduction can be a feasible and promising process for saline wastewater treatment in moderate climate.

Characterization of sulfate-reducing granular sludge in the SANI® process

Hong Kong practices seawater toilet flushing covering 80% of the population. A sulfur cycle-based biological nitrogen removal process, the Sulfate reduction, Autotrophic denitrification and Nitrification Integrated (SANI®) process, had been developed to close the loop between the hybrid water supply and saline sewage treatment. To enhance this novel process, granulation of a Sulfate-Reducing Up-flow Sludge Bed (SRUSB) reactor has recently been conducted for organic removal and provision of electron donors (sulfide) for subsequent autotrophic denitrification, with a view to minimizing footprint and maximizing operation resilience. This further study was focused on the biological and physicochemical characteristics of the granular sulfate-reducing sludge. A lab-scale SRUSB reactor seeded with anaerobic digester sludge was operated with synthetic saline sewage for 368 days. At 1 h nominal hydraulic retention time (HRT) and 6.4 kg COD/m3-d organic loading rate, the SRUSB reactor achieved 90% COD and 75% sulfate removal efficiencies. Granular sludge was observed within 30 days, and became stable after 4 months of operation with diameters of 400–500 μm, SVI5 of 30 ml/g, and extracellular polymeric substances of 23 mg carbohydrate/g VSS. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis revealed that the granules were enriched with abundant sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) as compared with the seeding sludge. Pyrosequencing analysis of the 16S rRNA gene in the sulfate-reducing granules on day 90 indicated that the microbial community consisted of a diverse SRB genera, namely Desulfobulbus (18.1%), Desulfobacter (13.6%), Desulfomicrobium (5.6%), Desulfosarcina (0.73%) and Desulfovibrio (0.6%), accounting for 38.6% of total operational taxonomic units at genera level, with no methanogens detected. The microbial population and physicochemical properties of the granules well explained the excellent performance of the granular SRUSB reactor.

Granulation of anaerobic sludge in the sulfate-reducing up-flow sludge bed (SRUSB) of SANI® process

This study reports on anaerobic sludge granulation in a laboratory-scale sulfate-reducing up-flow sludge bed (SRUSB) in a novel sulfate reduction, autotrophic denitrification and nitrification integrated (SANI(®)) process for treatment of saline sewage. Granulation occurred in 30 d and reached full development in 90 d. The sulfate-reducing granules grew up to around 1 mm after 90 d with 21 mL/g SVI5 (sludge volume index measured after 5 min) and the biomass concentration reached 29 g/L after 4 months' operation. The reactor removed 89% chemical oxygen demand (COD) and reduced 75% sulfate within 1 h of hydraulic retention time, under a COD loading rate of up to 6.4 kg COD/(m(3) · d).

The demonstration of a novel sulfur cycle‐based wastewater treatment process: Sulfate reduction, autotrophic denitrification, and nitrification integrated (SANI®) biological nitrogen removal process

Saline water supply has been successfully practiced for toilet flushing in Hong Kong since 1950s, which saves 22% of freshwater in Hong Kong. In order to extend the benefits of saline water supply into saline sewage management, we have recently developed a novel biological organics and nitrogen removal process: the Sulfate reduction, Autotrophic denitrification, and Nitrification Integrated (SANI®) process. The key features of this novel process include elimination of oxygen demand in organic matter removal and production of minimal sludge. Following the success of a 500-day lab-scale trial, this study reports a pilot scale evaluation of this novel process treating 10 m(3) /day of 6-mm screened saline sewage in Hong Kong. The SANI® pilot plant consisted of a sulfate reduction up-flow sludge bed (SRUSB) reactor, an anoxic bioreactor for autotrophic denitrification and an aerobic bioreactor for nitrification. The plant was operated at a steady state for 225 days, during which the average removal efficiencies of both chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total suspended solids (TSS) at 87% and no excess sludge was purposefully withdrawn. Furthermore, a tracer test revealed 5% short circuit flow and a 34.6% dead zone in the SRUSB, indicating a good possibility to further optimize the treatment capacity of the process for full-scale application. Compared with conventional biological nitrogen removal processes, the SANI® process reduces 90% of waste sludge, which saves 35% of the energy and reduces 36% of fossil CO(2) emission. The SANI® process not only eliminates the major odor sources originating from primary treatment and subsequent sludge treatment and disposal during secondary saline sewage treatment, but also promotes saline water supply as an economic and sustainable solution for water scarcity and sewage treatment in water-scarce coastal areas.