Treatment Of Ebola Research Articles

A Comprehensive Review on Nipah Virus Infection: Classification, Epidemiology, Treatment and Prevention

After being identified as a Paramyxoviridae member in 1999, NiV has been linked to encephalitis epidemics in Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, and India. NiV has a case-fatality rate of 100% and can cause fever encephalitis and severe respiratory disease in people. In addition to supportive care, there are no authorised vaccinations or therapies. Histopathology, IgG/IgM/antigen ELISA, immunofluorescence assay, nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT), viral isolation, and neutralisation testing are among the laboratory tests used to detect NiV. According to research done with thermal sensors, P. giganteus bats use date palm sap plants and consume the sap as it is being gathered. Nipah virus is believed to be the next pandemic agent, and Corona virus safety measures have helped to reduce its spread in Kerala. It is a respiratory illness that does not cause loss of taste or smell, but has a high death rate (40-45%). NiV patients have highest infectious potential during symptomatic phases, and exposure to the bodily fluids of infected individuals appears to be a viable route for human-to-human transmission. NiV epidemics are highly effective due to their rapid transmission through nosocomial and zoonotic mechanisms. Ribavirin was considered as the first antiviral medication which is used in the treatment of NiV, but ribavirin decreased mortality toll by 36%. Clinical studies with the purine analogue favipirivir (T-705) blocking RNA-dependent RNA polymerase have been conducted for the treatment of Ebola, and different influenza antiviral medications have also demonstrated effectiveness against NiV in Syrian hamster animal models. Preclinical research has demonstrated full protection.

Effective Anti-Fogging Agent for Glasses and Face Shields in the Treatment of Ebola in Uganda: Implications for Healthcare Worker Safety and Patient Care

Evidence on the effective Antifogging Agents (AFA) for use during Donning of goggles and face shields in Ebola Treatment Centres (ETC) is lacking. This study aimed at establishing an effective antifogging agent, the side effects of fogging, and the impact of fogging. It was a cross-sectional study conducted from 26 September to 08 October 2022 in Fort Portal Regional Referral Hospital Ebola Treatment Centre in which 21 Health Care Workers (HCWs) managing Ebola patients were recruited. All were healthy no signs or symptoms. AFA used were Liquid Soap & Alcohol 80%. The Control was Standard of Care. As they donned goggles the time taken to fog was noted, side effects and impact were all noted for each HCW after they had doffed off their Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). AFA was significant if P < 0.05 with a 95% Confidence Interval. Study findings; 66.7% of those that used liquid soap never fogged after 4 hours in PPE with p <0.001, The participants who used Alcohol all fogged 30 minutes after donning with p=0.030, and on the standard of care all of them fogged within 21 minutes of donning PPE with p=0.552. In this study over 90% who fogged could not see and stopped working. Of those who fogged 43 % developed dizziness and 53% developed headache. This study has demonstrated liquid soap is a superior AFA and thus increased the time the health care workers spend attending to critically ill Ebola patients and it reduces chances of infection among health care workers resulting from fogging of goggles. This study recommends WHO and MoH to include in their IPC guidelines the use of liquid soap as an antifogging agent for the goggles and face shields during donning in order to improve the level of care in the Isolation Treatment Centres.

Instruction of molecular structure similarity and scaffolds of drugs under investigation in ebola virus treatment by atom-pair and graph network: A combination of favipiravir and molnupiravir

The virus that causes Ebola is fatal. Although many researchers have attempted to contain this deadly infection, the fatality rate remains high. The atom-pair fingerprint technique was used to compare drugs suggested for the treatment of Ebola or those that are currently being tested in clinical settings. Subsequently, using scaffold network graph (SNG) methods, the molecular and structural scaffolds of the drugs chosen based on these similar results were created, and the drug structures were examined. Public databases (PubChem and DrugBank) and literature regarding Ebola treatment were used in the analysis. Graphical representations of the molecular architecture and core structures of the drugs with the highest similarity to Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs were produced using the SNG method. The combination of molnupiravir, the first licensed oral medication candidate for COVID-19, and favipiravir, employed in other viral outbreaks, should be further researched for treating Ebola, as observed in our study. We also believe that chemists will benefit from understanding the core structure(s) of medication molecules effective against the Ebola virus, their inhibitors, and the chemical structure similarities of existing pharmaceuticals utilized to build alternative drugs or drug combinations.

LESSONS AND NEW PERSPECTIVES: IS CONVALESCENT PLASMA THERAPY EFFECTIVE ON COVID-19 PATIENTS?

Objective: Recently, convalescent plasma (CP) therapy has shown promising evidence in the treatment of several serious contagious diseases, including SARS-CoV, Influenza and Ebola. We conducted a systematic review to extract data about using CP treatment for COVID-19 patients and it’s effectively. Methods: The retrieval of studies was conducted according to Cochrane Collaboration and from electronic databases including PubMed, Medline, and others (medRxiv and BioRxiv). Searching of the available evidence concerning CP treatment of COVID-19 patients was conducted in journal articles published between December 2019 and October 2020. The articles were further screened based on inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify the high-quality studies for analysis. Results: A total of 18 CP studies were included in this review. We found variance regarding the effectiveness of CP in the reduction of mortality rate, length of stay, and increased discharging rate. Several findings show CP therapy is effective in increasing viral negativity, neutralizing antibodies to recipients, does not cause harmful adverse reactions and in some cases can improve clinical symptoms. This therapy is presently considered effective for generating good clinical outcomes when given early in the course of the disease. Conclusion: The effectiveness of CP in terms of mortality, length of stay, and increased discharging patients is still debatable. However, CP therapy is effective in increasing the negativity of SARS-CoV-2 test, neutralizing antibody titer and is safe so it can be considered for COVID-19 patients. CP should not be given in the initial disease course but is recommended for the early disease course.

AAP Publications Reaffirmed or Retired

Policy Statement. Nondiscrimination in pediatric health care. Pediatrics. 2007;120(4):922–923. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/120/4/922. Reaffirmed May 2021Policy Statement. Global climate change and children's health. Pediatrics. 2015;136(5):992–997. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/5/992. Reaffirmed May 2021Technical Report. Global climate change and children's health. Pediatrics. 2015;136(5). Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/5/e1468. Reaffirmed May 2021Clinical Report. Assessment and management of inguinal hernia in infants. Pediatrics. 2012;130(4):768–773. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/130/4/768. Reaffirmed May 2021Clinical report. Parental presence during treatment of Ebola or other highly consequential infection. Pediatrics. 2016;138(3):e20161891. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/138/3/e20161891. Reaffirmed March 2021Clinical report. The use of systemic and topical fluoroquinolones. Pediatrics. 2016;138(5):e20162706. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/4/e1034. Reaffirmed March 2021Clinical report. Infectious complications with the use of biologic response modifiers in infants and children. Pediatrics. 2016;138(2):e20161209. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/07/14/peds.2016-1209. Reaffirmed March 2021Technical report. Nontherapeutic use of antimicrobial agents in animal agriculture: implications for pediatrics. Pediatrics. 2015;136(6):e1670-e1677. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/6/e1670. Reaffirmed June 2021Clinical report. Evaluation and referral for developmental dysplasia of the hip in infants. Pediatrics. 2016;138(6): e20163107. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/138/6/e20163107. Reaffirmed June 2021Clinical Report. Parent-provider-community partnerships: optimizing outcomes for children with disabilities. Pediatrics. 2011;128(4):795–802. Available at: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/4/795. Retired May 2021

The Effect of Ezetimibe in the Treatment of Ebola

Background: In this article, we are looking for treatment for Ebola virus. We will do it using a cholesterol-lowering drug called Ezetimibe. Methods: Marburg and Ebola hemorrhagic fevers are severe, systemic viral diseases affecting humans and non-human primates. They are characterized by multiple symptoms such as hemorrhages, fever, headache, muscle and abdominal pain, chills, sore throat, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Elevated liver-associated enzyme levels and coagulopathy are also associated with these diseases. Marburg and Ebola hemorrhagic fevers are caused by (Lake Victoria) Marburg virus and different species of Ebola viruses, respectively. They are enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses and belong to the family of filoviridae. Case fatality rates of filovirus disease outbreaks are among the highest reported for any human pathogen, ranging from 25 to 90% or more. But when Ezetimibe is given to patients with the Ebola virus, we see that the drug blocks the transmission of the virus to the body by delivering the virus to the immune system. Results: In this article are paid to effect of drug Ezetimibe in the treatment of disease Ebola.NPC1L1 carry Ebola virus that by Ezetimibe, NPC1L1 disabled and cannot carry the virus with you. In fact, this drug (Ezetimibe) is a supplier of antigen to antibodies. We will also look at the function of the NPC1L1 and NPC1 receptors and the drug Ezetimibe. Conclusions: Ezetimibe has a higher affinity for NPC1L1 receptor than cholesterol, and cholesterol has a higher affinity for NPC1L1 receptor than Ebola virus. In fact, if we want to show the percentage of desire for NPC1L1 receptor, it is as follows: Ezetimibe> Cholesterol> Ebola virus

SARS-CoV-2 Mpro: A Potential Target for Peptidomimetics and Small-Molecule Inhibitors.

The uncontrolled spread of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 during 2020–2021 is one of the most devastating events in the history, with remarkable impacts on the health, economic systems, and habits of the entire world population. While some effective vaccines are nowadays approved and extensively administered, the long-term efficacy and safety of this line of intervention is constantly under debate as coronaviruses rapidly mutate and several SARS-CoV-2 variants have been already identified worldwide. Then, the WHO’s main recommendations to prevent severe clinical complications by COVID-19 are still essentially based on social distancing and limitation of human interactions, therefore the identification of new target-based drugs became a priority. Several strategies have been proposed to counteract such viral infection, including the repurposing of FDA already approved for the treatment of HIV, HCV, and EBOLA, inter alia. Among the evaluated compounds, inhibitors of the main protease of the coronavirus (Mpro) are becoming more and more promising candidates. Mpro holds a pivotal role during the onset of the infection and its function is intimately related with the beginning of viral replication. The interruption of its catalytic activity could represent a relevant strategy for the development of anti-coronavirus drugs. SARS-CoV-2 Mpro is a peculiar cysteine protease of the coronavirus family, responsible for the replication and infectivity of the parasite. This review offers a detailed analysis of the repurposed drugs and the newly synthesized molecules developed to date for the treatment of COVID-19 which share the common feature of targeting SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, as well as a brief overview of the main enzymatic and cell-based assays to efficaciously screen such compounds.

In silico Evaluation on the Inhibition Efficacy of Five Antivirals on SARS-CoV-2 Protease (COVID-19)

Abstract: Background: All over the world rigorous research attempts are going on to find a remedy for the spreading and prevention of the dreadful pandemic of 21st century, the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). To discover an effective drug for curing and a preventive vaccine against this disease it will take more than one year. According to some medical practitioners certain antivirals which are used for other diseases can cure COVID-19. Aim: In the present investigation, five antivirals claiming to be effective therapeutic agents to mitigate the symptoms of COVID-19 were screened using computational docking studies on the main protease of coronavirus. Materials and Methods: Five antivirals considered are Favipiravir (FVR), Remdesivir (RMR), Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), Lopinavir (LVR) and Ritonavir (RVR). The first three agents FVR, RMR and HCQ are used for the treatment of influenza, ebola and malaria respectively. Lopinavir and Ritonavir are the anti-HIV drugs. Favipiravir and Remdesivir are prod rugs and the active nucleotide metabolites (FVR-RTP and RMR-NTP) were taken for in silico docking investigations. AutoDockvina, EduPyMoL and Discovery Studio software’s were used for the computational evaluation. Results: Among the studied molecules HCQ displayed lowest score for the binding energy (-6.1 kcal/mol) and LPR showed the highest value (-8.1 kcal/mol) on SARS-CoV-2 protease. The binding energy of the antivirals on the protease follows the order HCQ <RVR <RMR–NTP <FPR–RTP <LPR. Various interactions of the antivirals with the binding pocket of the protease are well explained using 2D and 3D plots. Conclusion: Poor inhibition was noted for HCQ in the protease binding pocket and hence the therapy using this drug for COVID-19 may not be effective. LPR displayed maximum value of binding capacity on the receptor. FPR-RTP interacted well on the protease with seven H-bonds. RVR and RMR molecules also bound the receptor using strong favourable binding forces. Key words: COVID-19, Docking, Inhibitor, Protease, Lopinavir, Ritonavir.

An Up-to-Date Overview of Therapeutic Agents for the Treatment of COVID-19 Disease.

Acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has a great potential to overwhelm the world healthcare systems that may lead to high morbidity and mortality. It also affects world economic development in the future. Currently, no proven effective drugs or vaccines are available for the management of COVID-19 disease. The pace of normal drug development progression is unacceptable in the context of the current pandemic. Therefore, repurposing the existing drugs that were used for the treatment of malaria, Ebola, and influenza helps rapid drug development for COVID-19. Currently, several repurposing candidate drugs are in a clinical trial including, chloroquine monoclonal antibodies, convalescent plasma, interferon, and antiviral therapies. Antiviral drugs like arbidol, remdesiv and favirnavir are the most promising due to the similarities of the viruses regarding viral entry, fusion, uncoating, and replication. This review article provides an overview of the potential therapeutic agent, which displayed better clinical treatment outcomes. Moreover, with further understanding of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, new drugs targeting specific SARS-CoV-2 viral components arise, and investigations on these novels anti-SARSCoV- 2 agents are also reviewed.

What Do We Know About Remdesivir Drug Interactions?

The global pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐Co‐V‐2) has resulted in a critical need to rapidly develop new pharmacologic interventions and disseminate information. This has led to confusing and conflicting information on drug efficacy. Remdesivir has emerged as a promising treatment for SARS‐Co‐V‐2 infection yet published clinical pharmacology and drug interaction studies are limited. Additional studies of the disposition of remdesivir, its active metabolite (GS‐441524), and its triphosphate metabolite (GS‐443902) are needed.

Synthesis of Remdesivir (GS-5734) — A Candidate for the Treatment of Ebola and COVID-19 Infections

Key words remdesivir - GS-5734 - COVID-19 - C-nucleoside - phosphoramidate prodrug - cyanation - pyrrolotriazinamine

Consideration of Pannexin 1 channels in COVID-19 pathology and treatment.

Pannexin1 (PANX1) is a ubiquitously expressed, channel-forming protein found in a number of tissues thoughout the body (e.g. lung, vasculature, liver, central nervous system, immune system) that is important in many key physiological and immune responses. PANX1 channels passively flux ATP (predominantly), multiple metabolites, and likely other small anions. PANX1 channels regulate inflammation and host responses to several pathogens, including viruses. While there is currently no evidence suggesting novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and PANX1 directly interact, there is an urgent need for therapeutic strategies, especially those targeting the hyper-inflammation and cytokine storm that occurs in severe cases of COVID-19. Here we argue that PANX1, and drugs known to target PANX1 (including the FDA-approved drug probenecid), should be the focus of further investigation in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its associated pathology in COVID-19 patients.

Treatment of ebola and other infectious diseases: melatonin “goes viral”

This review summarizes published reports on the utility of melatonin as a treatment for virus-mediated diseases. Of special note are the data related to the role of melatonin in influencing Ebola virus disease. This infection and deadly condition has no effective treatment and the published works documenting the ability of melatonin to attenuate the severity of viral infections generally and Ebola infection specifically are considered. The capacity of melatonin to prevent one of the major complications of an Ebola infection, i.e., the hemorrhagic shock syndrome, which often contributes to the high mortality rate, is noteworthy. Considering the high safety profile of melatonin, the fact that it is easily produced, inexpensive and can be self-administered makes it an attractive potential treatment for Ebola virus pathology.

Remdesivir. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor, Treatment of Ebola virus infection, Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19)

Remdesivir (GS-5734) is a promising broad-spectrum experimental antiviral drug developed by Gilead Sciences It is a nucleo-side analogue prodrug that undergoes rapid conversion into nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) by intracellular metabolic processes These NTPs inhibit viral polymerase by acting as an alternate substrate Initially, remdesivir was developed to treat Ebola virus disease as it exerts antiviral activity by inhibiting RNA-dependent RNA polymerase As RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is a common enzyme found in all viruses belonging to the realm Riboviria, remdesivir has the potential to be used as a broad-spectrum antiviral against a wide range of viruses, which has been reflected in several in vitro and in vivo studies in which it has efficiently prevented the replication of viruses belonging to diverse families such as Ebola virus, coronavirus, Zika virus and Nipah virus After qualifying preclinical efficacy and safety criteria, remdesivir is currently in randomized clinical trials in patients of Ebola virus and the recently emerged SARS-CoV-2 [GRAPHICS]

COVID-19 and thyroid

The coronavirus (CoV) (severe acute respiratory syndrome [SARS]-CoV-2) has taken the world by storm. From humble origins in China's wet meat markets, the virus has crashed even the biggest stock markets. Every special group has only one question in mind “What does this virus mean to me?” From a thyroid point of view, little is known about the virus at this juncture; however, useful information can be parsed from the existing literature[1] to answer two important questions – the effect of the thyroid on virus (susceptibility) and the effect of the virus on the thyroid. Patients with thyroid disease, either hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism, are not at increased risk of contracting the virus or developing complications. Neither thyroxine nor antithyroid drugs alter this risk, as they are not immunomodulators. While autopsy studies of patients with COVID-19 (the recognized term for CoV infection) are lacking, autopsy studies of SARS-CoV-1-affected patients show no involvement of thyroid follicular cells.[2] The virus is confined to the blood vessels that course through thyroid and has no predilection for thyroid cells per se direct viral effect on the thyroid, therefore seems unlikely. However, this does not rule out the indirect effects of the cytokine storm that a serious viral illness like COVID-19 can cause. Unfortunately, the looming threat of mortality, the difficulty in distinguishing thyroid illness from nonthyroidal illness, and the lack of even intermediate-term follow-up data make it hard to predict the indirect effect of systemic inflammatory response or the treatment. However, like any other viral illness, postviral thyroiditis is possible, which the treating physician should bear in mind. Favipiravir is another drug tried in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Its effects on thyroid are not known. Remdesivir, a nucleotide analog used for the treatment of Ebola and Marburg viruses, has also been tried in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Its effect on thyroid is not known. Chloroquine, hydroxychlroquine, and azithromycin have been tried in COVID-19 with varying results. Chloroquine can potentially accelerate the metabolism of thyroxine and thus elevate thyroid-stimulating hormone.[3] However, this effect is likely to be modest. Table 1 summarizes the effect of various drugs used to treat SARS-CoV-2 on thyroid.Table 1: Effect of medications tried for COVID19 on ThyroidThe more important issue is whether a thyroid function assessment is indicated at all for suspected viral respiratory illnesses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Indiscriminate thyroid function testing only serves to add to the confusion and should therefore be eschewed. The SARS-CoV-2 virus itself may be novel (as evidenced by the initial moniker nCoV-novel CoV), but the approach to this virus with respect to thyroid is likely same as any other virus. Sound clinical judgment should form the basis of testing and treatment. Financial support and sponsorship Nil. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.

An E460D Substitution in the NS5 Protein of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Confers Resistance to the Inhibitor Galidesivir (BCX4430) and Also Attenuates the Virus for Mice.

The adenosine analogue galidesivir (BCX4430), a broad-spectrum RNA virus inhibitor, has entered a phase 1 clinical safety and pharmacokinetics study in healthy subjects and is under clinical development for treatment of Ebola and yellow fever virus infections. Moreover, galidesivir also inhibits the reproduction of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and numerous other medically important flaviviruses. Until now, studies of this antiviral agent have not yielded resistant viruses. Here, we demonstrate that an E460D substitution in the active site of TBEV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) confers resistance to galidesivir in cell culture. Galidesivir-resistant TBEV exhibited no cross-resistance to structurally different antiviral nucleoside analogues, such as 7-deaza-2'-C-methyladenosine, 2'-C-methyladenosine, and 4'-azido-aracytidine. Although the E460D substitution led to only a subtle decrease in viral fitness in cell culture, galidesivir-resistant TBEV was highly attenuated in vivo, with a 100% survival rate and no clinical signs observed in infected mice. Furthermore, no virus was detected in the sera, spleen, or brain of mice inoculated with the galidesivir-resistant TBEV. Our results contribute to understanding the molecular basis of galidesivir antiviral activity, flavivirus resistance to nucleoside inhibitors, and the potential contribution of viral RdRp to flavivirus neurovirulence.IMPORTANCE Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a pathogen that causes severe human neuroinfections in Europe and Asia and for which there is currently no specific therapy. We have previously found that galidesivir (BCX4430), a broad-spectrum RNA virus inhibitor, which is under clinical development for treatment of Ebola and yellow fever virus infections, has a strong antiviral effect against TBEV. For any antiviral drug, it is important to generate drug-resistant mutants to understand how the drug works. Here, we produced TBEV mutants resistant to galidesivir and found that the resistance is caused by a single amino acid substitution in an active site of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, an enzyme which is crucial for replication of the viral RNA genome. Although this substitution led only to a subtle decrease in viral fitness in cell culture, galidesivir-resistant TBEV was highly attenuated in a mouse model. Our results contribute to understanding the molecular basis of galidesivir antiviral activity.

Development of Locked Nucleic Acid Antisense Oligonucleotides Targeting Ebola Viral Proteins and Host Factor Niemann-Pick C1.

The Ebola virus is a zoonotic pathogen that can cause severe hemorrhagic fever in humans, with up to 90% lethality. The deadly 2014 Ebola outbreak quickly made an unprecedented impact on human lives. While several vaccines and therapeutics are under development, current approaches contain several limitations, such as virus mutational escape, need for formulation or refrigeration, poor scalability, long lead-time, and high cost. To address these challenges, we developed locked nucleic acid (LNA)-modified antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to target critical Ebola viral proteins and the human intracellular host protein Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1), required for viral entry into infected cells. We generated noninfectious viral luciferase reporter assays to identify LNA ASOs that inhibit translation of Ebola viral proteins in vitro and in human cells. We demonstrated specific inhibition of key Ebola genes VP24 and nucleoprotein, which inhibit a proper immune response and promote Ebola virus replication, respectively. We also identified LNA ASOs targeting human host factor NPC1 and demonstrated reduced infection by chimeric vesicular stomatitis virus harboring the Ebola glycoprotein, which directly binds to NPC1 for viral infection. These results support further in vivo testing of LNA ASOs in infectious Ebola virus disease animal models as potential therapeutic modalities for treatment of Ebola.

Ebola: History and some implications for Africa

Abstract The Ebola disease derives its name after a small river, the Ebola River, flowing through the former Zaire (present day DR Congo) and was formally named in 1976. The disease belongs to the category of diseases referred to as “haemorrhagic fever”; the causal agent – a filovirus (from Latin “filo” = thread) belonging to the Filoviridae family. The treatment of Ebola has been only symptomatic, i.e. based on mitigation of the symptoms related to the infection, such as kidneys and liver. An effective vaccine has not been developed yet, even though rigorous attempts have been made and reported. Ebola has been primarily found in the Ivory Coast, DR Congo, Sudan, Gabon and other equatorial African countries. Based on the data obtained during the latest epidemics, people are strongly advised to avoid direct contact with patients, avoid buying bush meat in street markets and not handle dead bats, megabats, monkeys or gorillas. Estimated data suggest that more than 5,000 of these animals have died. The disease was also diagnosed in patients in the USA and Europe. The epidemic afflicted West Africa and had significant implication on their economy in terms of lost production, higher fiscal deficits, rising prices and lower real household incomes, leading to greater poverty.

Ebola: History and some implications for Africa

Abstract The Ebola disease derives its name after a small river, the Ebola River, flowing through the former Zaire (present day DR Congo) and was formally named in 1976. The disease belongs to the category of diseases referred to as “haemorrhagic fever”; the causal agent – a filovirus (from Latin “filo” = thread) belonging to the Filoviridae family. The treatment of Ebola has been only symptomatic, i.e. based on mitigation of the symptoms related to the infection, such as kidneys and liver. An effective vaccine has not been developed yet, even though rigorous attempts have been made and reported. Ebola has been primarily found in the Ivory Coast, DR Congo, Sudan, Gabon and other equatorial African countries. Based on the data obtained during the latest epidemics, people are strongly advised to avoid direct contact with patients, avoid buying bush meat in street markets and not handle dead bats, megabats, monkeys or gorillas. Estimated data suggest that more than 5,000 of these animals have died. The disease was also diagnosed in patients in the USA and Europe. The epidemic afflicted West Africa and had significant implication on their economy in terms of lost production, higher fiscal deficits, rising prices and lower real household incomes, leading to greater poverty.

Health workers\u2019 experiences of coping with the Ebola epidemic in Sierra Leone\u2019s health system: a qualitative study

BackgroundThe 2014 Ebola Virus Disease epidemic evolved in alarming ways in Sierra Leone spreading to all districts. The country struggled to control it against a backdrop of a health system that was already over-burdened. Health workers play an important role during epidemics but there is limited research on how they cope during health epidemics in fragile states. This paper explores the challenges faced by health workers and their coping strategies during the Ebola outbreak in four districts – Bonthe, Kenema, Koinadugu and Western Area - of Sierra Leone.MethodsWe used a qualitative study design: key informant interviews (n = 19) with members of the District Health Management Teams and local councils, health facility managers and international partners; and in depth interviews with health workers (n = 25) working in public health facilities and international health workers involved with the treatment of Ebola patients.ResultsThere were several important coping strategies including those that drew upon existing mechanisms: being sustained by religion, a sense of serving their country and community, and peer and family support. Externally derived strategies included: training which built health worker confidence in providing care; provision of equipment to do their job safely; a social media platform which helped health workers deal with challenges; workshops that provided ways to deal with the stigma associated with being a health worker; and the risk allowance, which motivated staff to work in facilities and provided an additional income source.ConclusionsSupportive supervision, peer support networks and better use of communication technology should be pursued, alongside a programme for rebuilding trusting relations with community structures. The challenge is building these mechanisms into routine systems, pre-empting shocks, rather than waiting to respond belatedly to crises.