Treatment Of Acute Infectious Diarrhea Research Articles

Acute Infectious Diarrhea.

Acute infectious diarrhea (AID) is one of the most common diseases in pediatric age with relevant burden both in high and in low-income countries. Thanks to their direct action on enterocyte functions and indirect actions on the mucosal and systemic immune system and on intestinal microbiome, probiotics are an ideal intervention to treat AID in childhood. However, their efficacy is strictly related to strains and indications, and practitioners should take this information into account in clinical practice. This chapter summarizes the main mechanisms of action of probiotics in AID, with a focus on proof of efficacy supporting their use in prevention and treatment of childhood AID. The use of selected strains in appropriate doses is strongly recommended by guidelines of AID, based on compelling proofs of efficacy and safety. At present, therapy with probiotics of AID is probably the strongest indication for probiotic use in medicine. Their role in prevention of AID is however questionable in healthy population, whereas it should be considered in at-risk population. Evidence for prevention of diarrhea in day-care centers and communities is lacking, but consistent evidence supports efficacy in prevention of hospital acquired diarrhea. Finally, this chapter presents novelties on this topic, in particular the role of rotavirus immunization on probiotics effectiveness and the effect of probiotics and postbiotics on Covid-associated diarrhea.Overall: AID is the most convincing area for probiotic use in children with gastrointestinal disorders, and effective strains should be used early on after onset of symptoms.

The Role of Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics in Adult Gastrointestinal Health

Gastrointestinal (GI) health is important because a healthy gut can maintain our general health and protect our body from infection or illness. Apart from vitamins and minerals, probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics have become increasingly famous as a supplement in our daily diet. Previously, a large number of studies had been performed to study the efficacy of probiotics in the prevention or treatment of illnesses. The purpose of our review is to discuss recent data on the benefits of probiotics in human’s GI health. Promising results on the effect of probiotics in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, particularly ulcerative colitis and pouchitis have been obtained from studies. Other reports also showed that a few probiotics can improve symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Saccharomyces boulardii was shown to prevent traveler’s diarrhea but further studies are needed for firm conclusions. Lactobaccilus rhamnosus and S. boulardiiare recommended in the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea. There are promising indications that probiotics could be useful in the prevention or treatment of ntibiotic-associated diarrhea, and a Lactobacillus-containing combination has been shown to prevent diarrhea caused by Clostridioides difficile. Addition of probiotics to current Helicobacter pylori eradication regime can further increase the eradication rate.

Update on Shigella and Nontyphoidal Salmonella Antimicrobial Drug Resistance: Implications on Empirical Treatment of Acute Infectious Diarrhea in Cambodia

Information on causative diarrheal pathogens and their associated antimicrobial susceptibility remains limited for Cambodia. This study describes antimicrobial resistance patterns for Shigella and nontyphoidal Salmonella isolates collected in Cambodia over a 5-year period. Multidrug resistance was shown in 98% of Shigella isolates, with 70%, 11%, and 29% of isolates being resistant to fluoroquinolones, azithromycin, and cephalosporin, respectively. As many as 11% of Shigella isolates were resistant to nearly all oral and parenteral drugs typically used for shigellosis, demonstrating extreme drug resistance phenotypes. Although a vast majority of nontyphoidal Salmonella isolates remained susceptible to cephalosporins (99%) and macrolides (98%), decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin was found in 67% of isolates, which is notably higher than previous reports. In conclusion, increasing antimicrobial resistance of Shigella and nontyphoidal Salmonella is a major concern for selecting empirical treatment of acute infectious diarrhea in Cambodia. Treatment practices should be updated and follow local antimicrobial resistance data for the identified pathogens.

The good bugs: the use of probiotics in pediatrics.

There is growing evidence encouraging the use of probiotics in many conditions in children. However, given the wide number of probiotics available and contradictory data in the literature, the health-care provider is often faced with uncertainness about whether or not to use probiotics and which one(s) to choose. We here review current hypotheses regarding the efficacy and safety of probiotics and evaluate the available data on the use of probiotics in most common diseases in children. Considering that probiotics have strain-specific effects, we will focus on individual probiotic strains rather than on probiotics in general. Strain-specific efficacy was clearly demonstrated with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Saccharomyces boulardii I-745 in the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea, Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 in infantile colics, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, and VSL#3 in irritable bowel syndrome. In addition, encouraging results are seen for use of probiotics in necrotizing enterocolitis, food allergy, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. However, the data available for constipation are to be considered somewhat equivocal. The clinical relevance of these findings indicates that healthcare providers need to take strain-specificity and disease specificity of probiotics into consideration when recommending probiotic for their patients.

The Mexican consensus on probiotics in gastroenterology.

Probiotics are frequently prescribed in clinical practice. Their efficacy in treating gastrointestinal disorders is supported by a significant number of clinical trials. However, the correct prescription of these agents is hampered due to a lack of knowledge of the scientific evidence and to the different presentations and microbial compositions of the probiotics that are currently available. To provide the clinician with a consensus review of probiotics and recommendations for their use in gastroenterology. Controlled clinical trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews published up to 2015 were selected, using the MESH terms: probiotics, gastrointestinal diseases, humans, adults, AND children. The Delphi method was employed. Eighteen gastroenterologists treating adult patients and 14 pediatric gastroenterologists formulated statements that were voted on until agreement>70% was reached. The level of evidence based on the GRADE system was evaluated for each statement. Eleven statements on the general concepts of probiotics and 27 statements on the use of probiotics in gastrointestinal diseases in both adults and children were formulated. The consensus group recommends the use of probiotics under the following clinical conditions: the prevention of diarrhea associated with antibiotics, the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea, the prevention of Clostridium difficile infection and necrotizing enterocolitis, the reduction of adverse events from Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy, relief from irritable bowel syndrome symptoms, the treatment of functional constipation in the adult, and the induction and maintenance of remission in patients with ulcerative colitis and pouchitis, and the treatment of covert and overt hepatic encephalopathy.

The Mexican consensus on probiotics in gastroenterology

IntroductionProbiotics are frequently prescribed in clinical practice. Their efficacy in treating gastrointestinal disorders is supported by a significant number of clinical trials. However, the correct prescription of these agents is hampered due to a lack of knowledge of the scientific evidence and to the different presentations and microbial compositions of the probiotics that are currently available. AimTo provide the clinician with a consensus review of probiotics and recommendations for their use in gastroenterology. Materials and methodsControlled clinical trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews published up to 2015 were selected, using the MESH terms: probiotics, gastrointestinal diseases, humans, adults, AND children. The Delphi method was employed. Eighteen gastroenterologists treating adult patients and 14 pediatric gastroenterologists formulated statements that were voted on until agreement of >70% was reached. The level of evidence based on the GRADE system was evaluated for each statement. Results and conclusionsEleven statements on the general concepts of probiotics and 27 statements on the use of probiotics in gastrointestinal diseases in both adults and children were formulated. The consensus group recommends the use of probiotics under the following clinical conditions: the prevention of diarrhea associated with antibiotics, the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea, the prevention of Clostridium difficile infection and necrotizing enterocolitis, the reduction of adverse events from Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy, relief from irritable bowel syndrome symptoms, the treatment of functional constipation in the adult, and the induction and maintenance of remission in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) and pouchitis, and the treatment of covert and overt hepatic encephalopathy.

Saccharomyces boulardii CNCM I-745 reduces the duration of diarrhoea, length of emergency care and hospital stay in children with acute diarrhoea

Evidence from the literature has shown that Saccharomyces boulardii provides a clinically significant benefit in the treatment of acute infectious diarrhoea in children. In this multicentre, randomised, prospective, controlled, single blind clinical trial performed in children with acute watery diarrhoea, we aimed to evaluate the impact of S. boulardii CNCM I-745 in hospitalised children, in children requiring emergency care unit (ECU) stay and in outpatient settings. The primary endpoint was the duration of diarrhoea (in hours). Secondary outcome measures were duration of hospitalisation and diarrhoea at the 3(rd) day of intervention. In the whole study group (363 children), the duration of diarrhoea was approximately 24 h shorter in the S. boulardii group (75.4±33.1 vs 99.8±32.5 h, P<0.001). The effect of S. boulardii (diarrhoea-free children) was observed starting at 48 h. After 72 h, only 27.3% of the children receiving probiotic still had watery diarrhoea, in contrast to 48.5% in the control group (P<0.001). The duration of diarrhoea was significantly reduced in the probiotic group in hospital, ECU and outpatient settings (P<0.001, P<0.01 and P<0.001, respectively). The percentage of diarrhoea-free children was significantly larger after 48 and 72 h in all settings. The mean length of hospital stay was shorter with more than 36 h difference in the S. boulardii group (4.60±1.72 vs 6.12±1.71 days, P<0.001). The mean length of ECU stay was shorter with more than 19 h difference in the probiotic group (1.20±0.4 vs 2.0±0.3 days, P<0.001). No adverse effects related to the probiotic were noted. Because treatment can shorten the duration of diarrhoea and reduce the length of ECU and hospital stay, there is likely a social and economic benefit of S. boulardii CNCM I-745 in adjunction to oral rehydration solution in acute infectious gastroenteritis in children.

Zastosowanie doustnych płynów nawadniających i probiotyków w leczeniu ostrej biegunki infekcyjnej u dzieci

Zastosowanie doustnych płynów nawadniających i probiotyków w leczeniu ostrej biegunki infekcyjnej u dzieci

The role of Bifidobacterium lactis B94 plus inulin in the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea in children.

In contrast to many other studies of probiotic species, the number of publications evaluating Bifidobacterium lactis and its combinations with prebiotics as treatments for acute infectious diarrhea is limited. We investigated the synbiotic effects of B. lactis B94 plus inulin on acute infectious diarrhea. The study was conducted on children with acute diarrhea between the ages of 2 and 60 months. The patients were administered 5×1010 colony-forming units (CFU) of B. lactis B94 plus 900 mg inulin or placebo, once a day for five days. Stools were examined for Rotavirus, Adenovirus, Entamoeba histolytica, Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, Cryptosporidium, and parasites. We examined 79 patients in the synbiotic group and 77 patients in the placebo group. The duration of diarrhea was significantly reduced in the synbiotic group in comparison with the placebo group (3.9±1.2 days vs. 5.2±1.3 days, respectively; p<0.001). Moreover, the number of diarrheal stools on the third day was significantly lower in the synbiotic group than in the placebo group (5.5±2.9 vs. 8.3±3.01, respectively; p<0.001). Diarrhea in the synbiotic-group patients with rotavirus infection was of a significantly shorter duration (3.2±1.3 days vs. 5.2±1.3 days, respectively; p=0.001). Duration of diarrhea in patients who started the synbiotic treatment within the first 24 h was shorter than that in the patients who started the treatment later (3.9±1.1 days vs. 4.8±1.8 days, respectively; p=0.002). Treatment with 5 × 1010 CFU of B. lactis B94 plus 900 mg inulin shortened the duration of acute watery diarrhea by an average of 31 h. This decrease was most pronounced in cases of Rotavirus diarrhea.

Probiotics: current evidences and new perspectives

Probiotics are viable microorganisms that can exert potential benefits to human health. Use of probiotics in different human diseases and clinical conditions has gained much attention in the last decades. Several data exist about the potential benefits of probiotics in pediatric age for the management of some clinical conditions, with different and sometimes contrasting results. Currently, strong evidences support the use of probiotics for treatment of acute infectious diarrhoea and prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea: bacteria belonging to the genus of lactobacilli and Saccharomyces boulardii showed the stronger evidences of benefits in different clinical trials and meta-analysis [1,2]. For other pediatric diseases and clinical conditions, evidences of the benefits of a probiotic supplementation are still not so strong. The recommendation to administer a probiotics supplementation in preterm, very low birth weight neonates at risk of developing necrotizing enterocolitis has recently been criticized by a critical review of the literature that conclude that well-designed clinical trials are still needed for suggesting its routinely use in these neonates [3]. Discussion is still ongoing about the benefits of probiotics in prevention or treatment of other pediatric diseases such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, Helicobacter pylori infection or allergic diseases. Clinical trials and meta-analysis about the use of probiotics in these pediatric clinical conditions have been published and still continued to be published; however, study designs are not always comparable and sometimes inadequate, species of probiotics used in the studies are different and the benefits demonstrated for one microorganism are not generalizable to other bacteria, results of the studies are still often not unequivocal or contrasting so that strong recommendations are still lacking. The use of probiotics has been suggested to be potentially beneficial for the management of gastrointestinal functional disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome, again, with different results. These clinical conditions are supposed to be the result of a perturbation of the microbiota balance that leads to dysbiosis, responsible for the appearance of the characteristic symptoms. However, pathogenesis of gastrointestinal functional disorders appear to be much more complex and involve the nervous system and its bidirectional interactions with the intestine. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that intestinal microbial composition may itself influence end-points related to mood state, brain function, and mental outlook. A new fascinating perspective in studies about microbiota and probiotics is the characterization of the alterations of intestinal microbiome and their correlation with abnormalities in the bidirectional gut-brain interactions.

A double blind randomized trial showing probiotics to be ineffective in acute diarrhea in Indonesian children.

To investigate the efficacy of probiotics added to oral rehydration solution and zinc in the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea in Indonesian children. A prospective randomized double blind placebo-controlled trial was performed to test the efficacy of a probiotic food supplement in 112 children in the Kenari subdistrict, central Jakarta, aged 6-36 mo with acute infectious diarrhea and moderate dehydration. The supplemented group was given standard therapy (oral rehydration solution and zinc) and the probiotic strains Lactobacillus (L.) rhamnosus R0011 1.9 × 10(9) colony forming units (cfu) and L. acidophilus R0052 0.1 × 10(9) cfu/d for 7 d, while the control group was given standard therapy and placebo. Median duration of diarrhea was 68.5 h (range 13-165) in the supplemented and 61.5 h (range 21-166) in the control group (P = 0.596). Median daily frequency of defecation until diarrhea stopped was 5.0 in the supplemented vs. 5.5 in the control group (P = 0.795). This probiotic food supplement tested did not reduce the duration of acute infectious diarrhea as compared to oral rehydration and zinc.

The diagnosis and treatment of acute infectious diarrhea in adults: an expert concensus

The diagnosis and treatment of acute infectious diarrhea in adults: an expert concensus

Probiotics for Prevention and Treatment of Diarrhea

Probiotics have been extensively studied over the past several years in the prevention and, to a larger extent, in the treatment of diarrheal diseases, especially in pediatric populations. Diarrhea is a symptom, and not a disease. This review will not address chronic disorders associated with diarrhea, or Clostridium difficile-induced diarrhea. Rather it will focus on published clinical trials performed on acute-onset, likely infectious diarrhea occurring in the settings of day-care centers, in the community, acquired in the hospital, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, and treatment of acute infectious diarrhea. For prevention of diarrhea acquired in day-care centers, 9 randomized and placebo-controlled trials have been published, conducted in different parts of the world. Probiotics tested were Lactobacillus GG, Bifidobacterium lactis (alone or in combination with Streptococcus thermophilus, and Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus rhamnosus (not GG), and Lactobacillus acidophilus, in various trials either alone or in comparison with each other. The evidence of their efficacy in these settings is only modest for the prevention of diarrhea, although somewhat better for prevention of upper respiratory infections. In the community, new trails conducted in underprivileged areas of India, again with modest efficacy. Previous trials that examined the potential role of probiotics in preventing the spreading of diarrhea in hospitalized children had yielded conflicting results. More recently, a large trial in Poland showed, however, rather good evidence of efficacy for Lactobacillus GG. The prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea has been the subject of many investigations, both in children and in adults. Most commonly used probiotics were Lactobacillus GG, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium ssp, Streptococcus ssp, and the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii. In general, most of these trials do show clear evidence of efficacy, with the 2 most effective strains being Lactobacillus GG and S. boulardii. Evidence is also emerging on the importance of the dose in reducing the incidence of this type of diarrhea, and the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated postantibiotic diarrhea. As for treatment, a large body of data is available, especially in children, on the effect of several strains of probiotics in treating sporadic infectious diarrhea. The vast majority of the published trials show a statistically significant benefit and moderate clinical benefit of a few, well-identified probiotic strains-mostly Lactobacillus GG and S. boulardii-in the treatment of acute watery diarrhea, and particularly those due to rotavirus. Such a beneficial effect results, on average, in a reduction of diarrhea duration of approximately 1 day. The effect is strain-dependent and dose-dependent.

Rifaximin for the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea.

Rifaximin is a nonabsorbable rifamycin derivative with an excellent safety profile and a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against a variety of enteropathogens causing acute infectious diarrhea. After oral ingestion, its bioavailability is known to be less than 0.4%, and it has a low potential for significant drug interactions. In the treatment of travelers' diarrhea caused by noninvasive diarrheagenic Escherichia coli, it has been demonstrated that rifaximin significantly shortens the duration of diarrhea and has an efficacy similar to that of ciprofloxacin. Moreover, according to two randomized placebo-controlled trials, prophylactic treatment with rifaximin reduced the risk of developing travelers' diarrhea by more than 50% compared with the placebo group. For the treatment of acute diarrhea unrelated to travel, a short course of rifaximin significantly reduced the duration of diarrhea, and its overall efficacy was comparable to that of ciprofloxacin. The discrepancy between the invitro and invivoantimicrobial activities of rifaximin, however, and the clinical implication of the rapid appearance of bacterial resistance, must be further elucidated. In conclusion, this gut-selective antibiotic seems to be a promising option for the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea secondary to noninvasive E. coli and also appears to be effective in chemoprophylaxis for travelers' diarrhea.

Efficacy of Rifaximin Compared with Ciprofloxacin for the Treatment of Acute Infectious Diarrhea: A Randomized Controlled Multicenter Study

Ciprofloxacin has been widely prescribed for acute infectious diarrhea. However, the resistance to this drug is increasing. Rifaximin is a novel but poorly absorbed rifamycin derivative. This study evaluated and compared the efficacies of rifaximin and ciprofloxacin for the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea. We performed a randomized controlled multicenter study in Korea. Patients with acute diarrhea were enrolled and randomized to receive rifaximin or ciprofloxacin for 3 days. The primary efficacy endpoint was the time to last unformed stool (TLUS). Secondary endpoints were enteric wellness (reduction of at least 50% in the number of unformed stools during 24-hour postenrollment intervals), general wellness (subjective feeling of improvement), and proportion of patients with treatment failure. Intent-to-treat analysis (n=143) showed no significant difference between the rifaximin and ciprofloxacin groups in the mean TLUS (36.1 hours vs 43.6 hours, p=0.163), enteric wellness (49% vs 57%, p=0.428), general wellness (67% vs 78%, p=0.189), or treatment failure rate (9% vs 12%, p=0.841). The adverse events did not differ significantly between the two groups. These results suggest that rifaximin is as safe and effective as ciprofloxacin in the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea.

736 Efficacy of Rifaximin Compared With Ciprofloxacin for the Treatment of Acute Infectious Diarrhea: A Randomized Controlled Multicenter Study

736 Efficacy of Rifaximin Compared With Ciprofloxacin for the Treatment of Acute Infectious Diarrhea: A Randomized Controlled Multicenter Study

Probióticos en diarrea aguda infecciosa

ABSTRACT Probiotics in acute infectious diarrhea Background: Acute infectious diarrhea in children represents a worldwide problem and it relates todesnutrition, morbility and death. Objective: Determine the usefulness of probiotics in the treatment ofacute infectious diarrhea in children by reviewing the scientific information available in the form of meta-analysis. Methods: A detailed search was performed in electronic databases. Four of the articles found metinclusion criteria. Results: The four meta-analysis studied demonstrated that the administration of probioticsin children with acute infectious diarrhea decreased the episode duration in approximately one day withminimal adverse events. Conclusions: Despite methodological limitations of the analysed articles, thestudies showed the same trend towards observing a benefit in the use of probiotics in acute infectiousdiarrhea in children. The latter supports the consistency of this association. In general, the use ofprobiotics in children with acute infectious diarrhea would be useful in general practice reducing diarrheaduration in approximately one day.(

Probiotics for Children With Diarrhea

This review focuses on the efficacy of probiotics for diarrhea in children in different settings: day-care centers, diarrhea acquired in the hospital, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, and treatment of acute infectious diarrhea. For prevention of diarrhea acquired in day-care centers, 5 randomized and placebo-controlled trials have been published. Probiotics tested were Lactobacillus GG, Bifidobacterium lactis (alone or in combination with Streptococcus thermophilus), and Lactobacillus reuteri. The evidence of their efficacy in these settings is only modest: statistically significant for some strains only and in any case of minimal to mild clinical importance. Few trials have examined the potential role of probiotics in preventing the spread of diarrhea in hospitalized children, an event most commonly due to either rotavirus or Clostridium difficile, and they have yielded conflicting results. Overall, these studies provide only weak evidence on the efficacy of probiotics. On the other hand, a large number of trials on the role of probiotics in preventing the onset of antibiotic-associated diarrhea have been published. Most commonly employed probiotics were Lactobacillus GG, Bifidobacterium spp., Streptococcus spp., and the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii. In general, these trials do show clear evidence of efficacy, with the 2 most effective strains being Lactobacillus GG and S. boulardii. Today, we have a large number of published clinical trials on the role of probiotics in treating sporadic infectious diarrhea in children, and many of them are randomized, blinded, and controlled. They consistently show a statistically significant benefit and moderate clinical benefit of a few, well-identified probiotic strains-mostly Lactobacillus GG and S. boulardii, but also L. reuteri-in the treatment of acute watery diarrhea, primarily rotaviral, in infants and young children of developed countries. Such a beneficial effect seems to result in a reduction of diarrhea duration of little more than 1 day, and to be exerted mostly on diarrhea due to rotavirus. The effect is not only strain-dependent, but also dose-dependent, with doses of at least 10 billion/d being necessary.

Acute infectious diarrhoea in children: new insights in antisecretory treatment with racecadotril

In developing countries acute infectious diarrhoea remains one of the leading causes of death among young children, especially those under 1 year of age. In contrast, in industrialized nations the death rate is very low, although the disease is an important cause of morbidity and consumes substantial healthcare costs. A variety of viral, bacterial and parasitic organisms have been implicated in the pathogenesis of acute diarrhoea. The primary objectives of treatment of acute infectious diarrhoea are correction of dehydration with oral replacement therapy (ORT) and maintenance of good nutritional status via food intake. With regards drug therapy antimicrobial agents are not usually recommended since the disease is generally self‐limiting. Racecadotril is powerful and selective enkephalinase inhibitor and has emerged as a promising drug in the antisecretory therapy of acute infectious diarrhoea in children.Conclusion: There is encouraging evidence that treatment with racecadotril can provide clinically relevant symptomatic relief by reducing the severity and duration of diarrhoeal episodes. The drug is well tolerated and has a favourable safety profile. However, further comparative studies and cost‐effectiveness analyses are needed to define the position of the drug in the management of diarrhoeal illness in children.

Antibiotics for the empirical treatment of acute infectious diarrhea in children

While the routine use of antibiotics for infectious diarrhea in children must be avoided, because it brings little benefit in most cases and is associated with the risk of increasing antimicrobial resistance, selected cases may require antimicrobial therapy, and the choice of the antimicrobial agent often has to be made empirically. Physicians prescribing antimicrobials in such a setting have not only to be aware of the most likely pathogens, but also of their characteristic antimicrobial susceptibility pattern and the safety profile of the various drugs. We reviewed the literature on the use of ampicillin, beta-lactamase inhibitors, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, nalidixic acid, fluoroquinolones, third-generation cephalosporins, macrolides, metronidazole and malabsorbed agents in the setting of acute infectious diarrhea, and we evaluated the available information, seeking to apply it to empirical use, highlighting clinically-useful pharmacological information and patients' and pathogens' characteristics that must be taken into account for decisions about antimicrobial therapy.