Treatment Of Autism Spectrum Disorder Research Articles

MicroRNAs as Regulators, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Targets in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

The pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is complex and is mainly influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Some research has indicated that environmental aspects may interplay with genetic aspects to enhance the risk, and microRNAs (miRNAs) are probably factors in explaining this link between heredity and the environment. MiRNAs are single-stranded noncoding RNAs that can regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level. Some research has indicated that miRNAs are closely linked to neurological diseases. Many aberrantly expressed miRNAs have been observed in autism, and these dysregulated miRNAs are expected to be potential biomarkers and provide new strategies for the treatment of this disease. This article reviews the research progress of miRNAs in autism, including their biosynthesis and function. It is found that some miRNAs show aberrant expression patterns in brain tissue and peripheral blood of autistic patients, which may serve as biomarkers of the disease. In addition, the article explores the novel role of exosomes as carriers of miRNAs with the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and unique expression profiles, offering new possibilities for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions in ASD. The potential of miRNAs in exosomes as diagnostic markers for ASD is specifically highlighted, as well as the prospect of using engineered exosome-encapsulated miRNAs for targeted therapies.

Understanding caregivers' needs: supporting families of autistic children

Parenting a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) poses significant emotional, financial, and social challenges to caregivers. This paper examines the experiences of caregivers, highlighting their increased stress, burnout, and mental health concerns. The importance of accessible information resources, respite care services, emotional support networks, and financial assistance programs is emphasized. Effective strategies for supporting caregivers include educating them about ASD symptoms, treatments, and therapies, teaching coping mechanisms for managing challenging behaviors, and promoting collaboration between healthcare providers and caregivers. Policy implications are discussed, including advocating for legislative modifications that prioritize caregiver needs, promoting inclusionary practices within educational systems, and increasing funding for early intervention programs and caregiver support services. The implementation of parent training programs, collaborative relationships between educators and caregivers, and professional development opportunities for educators are also recommended. This study aims to inform policymakers, healthcare professionals, and educators about the critical role of caregiver support in improving outcomes for children with ASD. By addressing caregiver needs and providing comprehensive support, we can enhance the well-being of both caregivers and children with ASD.

Sociodemographic and Clinical Profile of 915 Autistic Preschoolers Engaged in Intensive Early Intervention in Australia.

There is a paucity of information on the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of autistic children with high support needs. This study aims to address this gap by profiling a cohort of 915 children enrolled in full-time early intervention for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Australia between 2012 and 2024. Intake questionnaires assessed the sociodemographic characteristics of families entering the service. Clinical measures included the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (2nd ed.), Mullen Scales of Early Learning, and Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale (2nd and 3rd eds.). Family measures included the Parenting Stress Index (4th ed., Short Form) and Autism Family Experience Questionnaire. Results indicated a male to female ratio of 3.8:1, clear delays from the age of first concern to diagnosis and intervention, and notable proportions of culturally diverse families. While clinical data indicated cognitive and adaptive deficits beyond findings in other ASD studies, measures of stress and family experiences were comparable to other autism literature. By reporting these findings, this study aims to facilitate a more informed, tailored and nuanced approach to addressing the unique challenges faced by autistic children with high support needs. The scope and limitations of this cohort are discussed.

Transforming lives in autism spectrum disorder treatment through acupuncture: A case report

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, restricted and repetitive behaviors, and narrow interests. Given the high prevalence of ASD and the lack of specific pharmacological treatments, there is a pressing need for alternative therapeutic approaches. Acupuncture has shown promise in improving the clinical symptoms of ASD. This report presents the case of a 6-year-old girl diagnosed with ASD, intellectual developmental disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and articulation disorder. She underwent Liu’s pediatric neurological rehabilitation acupuncture therapy (PNRAT) for over 2 years. The treatment involved specific scalp acupuncture techniques targeting cognitive and linguistic rehabilitation. After the treatment course, the patient showed significant improvements in cognitive, linguistic, social, and behavioral symptoms, transitioning from limited verbal communication and marked social difficulties to thriving in a mainstream school setting. This case highlights the potential of Liu’s PNRAT as an effective intervention for ASD. The observed improvements suggest that acupuncture may offer valuable therapeutic benefits for children with ASD, contributing to the growing interest in its potential as an adjunct therapy. Further research is needed to optimize treatment protocols and explore synergies with conventional therapies.

Lactobacillus reuteri or Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG intervention facilitates gut barrier function, decreases corticosterone and ameliorates social behavior in LPS-exposed offspring

Probiotic therapy with Lactobacillus reuteri and Lactobacillus rhamnosus (LGG) demonstrates potential as an adjunctive treatment for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In a rat model of ASD induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection during pregnancy, we evaluated the effects of these probiotics on offspring. Administration of L. reuteri or LGG for three weeks post-birth improved social deficits and reduced anxiety in LPS-exposed rats. Additionally, probiotics significantly modified short-chain fatty acid profiles, increasing butyric acid levels and decreasing propionic acid levels. They also enhanced colonic barrier integrity by upregulating tight junction proteins, including ZO-1, Occludin, and Claudin4. RNA sequencing identified differential gene expression in pathways related to inflammation, the HPA axis, and reactive oxygen species metabolism, with NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1) emerging as a crucial gene. Validation studies confirmed that Lactobacillus strains reduced inflammatory cytokines, inhibited corticosterone secretion, increased antioxidant levels, and suppressed the NF-κB/NOX1 pathway. In an H2O2-induced oxidative stress model using Caco-2 cells, pre-treatment with L. reuteri, LGG, or NF-κB inhibitors enhanced cellular antioxidants, inhibited NF-κB/NOX1 activation, and improved barrier function. Overall, L. reuteri and LGG administration improved social behavior, bolstered colonic barrier function, and mitigated HPA axis overactivation in LPS-exposed rats, while also alleviating oxidative stress in the colon and Caco-2 cells. These findings suggest that L. reuteri and LGG have substantial clinical potential for ASD treatment by targeting multiple pathophysiological mechanisms, including inflammation, HPA axis dysregulation, and oxidative stress, thereby presenting a promising adjunctive therapeutic strategy for enhancing social behavior and gut health in ASD.

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Atypical Brain Connectivity: Novel Insights from Brain Connectivity-Associated Genes by Combining Random Forest and Support Vector Machine Algorithm.

It is estimated that approximately one in every 100 children is diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) around the globe. Currently, there are no curative pharmacological treatments for ASD. Discoveries on key molecular mechanisms of ASD are essential for precision medicine strategies. Considering that atypical brain connectivity patterns have been observed in individuals with ASD, this study examined the brain connectivity-associated genes and their putatively distinct expression patterns in brain samples from individuals diagnosed with ASD and using an iterative strategy based on random forest and support vector machine algorithms. We discovered a potential gene signature capable of differentiating ASD from control samples with a 92% accuracy. This gene signature comprised 14 brain connectivity-associated genes exhibiting enrichment in synapse-related terms. Of these genes, 11 were previously associated with ASD in varying degrees of evidence. Notably, NFKBIA, WNT10B, and IFT22 genes were identified as ASD-related for the first time in this study. Subsequent clustering analysis revealed the existence of two distinct ASD subtypes based on our gene signature. The expression levels of signature genes have the potential to influence brain connectivity patterns, potentially contributing to the manifestation of ASD. Further studies on the omics of ASD are called for so as to elucidate the molecular basis of ASD and for diagnostic and therapeutic innovations. Finally, we underscore that advances in ASD research can benefit from integrative bioinformatics and data science approaches.

The effects of human-computer interaction-based interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis

The effects of human-computer interaction-based interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis

Targeting the circadian modulation: novel therapeutic approaches in the management of ASD.

Circadian dysfunction is prevalent in neurodevelopmental disorders, particularly in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A plethora of empirical studies demonstrate a strong correlation between ASD and circadian disruption, suggesting that modulation of circadian rhythms and the clocks could yield satisfactory advancements. Research indicates that circadian dysfunction associated with abnormal neurodevelopmental phenotypes in ASD individuals, potentially contribute to synapse plasticity disruption. Therefore, targeting circadian rhythms may emerge as a key therapeutic approach. In this study, we did a brief review of the mammalian circadian clock, and the correlation between the circadian mechanism and the pathology of ASD at multiple levels. In addition, we highlight that circadian is the target or modulator to participate in the therapeutic approaches in the management of ASD, such as phototherapy, melatonin, modulating circadian components, natural compounds, and chronotherapies. A deep understanding of the circadian clock's regulatory role in the neurodevelopmental phenotypes in ASD may inspire novel strategies for improving ASD treatment.

Reviewing the effect of creative arts therapy on the development of cognitive and social skills in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

Creative art therapy has been utilized for many years as a treatment regimen for certain mental disorders. Overall, results of studies on creative art therapy show a positive trend, with general improvements in mental health and reduction of neurological symptoms in the majority of cases. The results regarding the effectiveness of creative art therapies in treating autism spectrum disorder are unclear and varied, due to the range of symptoms involved in autism spectrum disorder, the effect of age on therapy, and the variety of creative art therapies available for use. Of all the creative art therapies chosen to review, music was the most investigated. The studies performed on music therapy showed positive results, however, a large-scale randomized controlled trial refuted the positive benefits, leading to an inconclusive overall result on the effectiveness of music therapy. Research on the benefits of creative art therapies for children with autism spectrum disorder is inconclusive. Studies generally demonstrate a positive effect on many different types of creative art therapies. However, these studies have major limitations in generalizability due to small sample sizes and their descriptive nature. Future research should focus on developing randomized controlled trial protocols that can be used on a larger scale to generate more definitive results on the benefits, or lack thereof, of creative art therapies. Research should also be performed on the effect of adolescence on creative art therapies, and whether targeting it at younger children with autism spectrum disorder would be more or less beneficial than targeting it towards adolescents.

The Role of Parvalbumin Interneurons in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

As an important subtype of GABAergic interneurons, parvalbumin (PV) interneurons play a critical role in regulating cortical circuits and neural networks. Abnormalities in the development or function of PV interneurons have been linked to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social and language deficits. In this review, we focus on the abnormalities of PV interneurons in ASD, including quantity and function and discuss the underlying mechanisms of impairments in PV interneurons in the pathology of ASD. Finally, we propose potential therapeutic approaches targeting PV interneurons, such as transplanting MGE progenitor cells and utilizing optogenetic stimulation in the treatment of ASD.

Qualitative analysis of Portuguese-language YouTube videos about autism spectrum disorders

BackgroundIn the digital age, social media platforms such as YouTube have become significant channels for disseminating health information, including content related to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The quality and reliability of this information, especially when produced by healthcare professionals, are crucial for public health education and promotion. This study aims the content of Portuguese-language videos about the treatment of ASD on YouTube, produced by healthcare providers from 2019 to 2023, assessing their quality and alignment with evidence-based practices. MethodsA qualitative exploratory descriptive approach was used, with content analysis based on Bardin's method. A total of 41 videos were selected using keywords related to ASD. Transcriptions were analyzed for discussions on treatment approaches, best practices, and professional recommendations according to DSM-V and ICD-10 guidelines. The quality of information was assessed using the DISCERN questionnaire. ResultsThe analysis revealed significant variability in the quality of the information. Videos were categorized into four quality groups based on DISCERN scores: good (n = 6), moderate (n = 11), poor (n = 20), and very poor (n = 4). Good quality videos had the highest engagement metrics and overall quality scores. Common themes identified included defining and understanding ASD, ABA interventions and strategies, family and social impact, skills development, and challenges and solutions. ConclusionWhile some videos provided accurate, evidence-based information, a substantial portion did not meet minimum quality criteria. This highlights the need for improved mechanisms to ensure the dissemination of reliable health information on social media platforms.

Investigating brain–gut microbiota dynamics and inflammatory processes in an autistic-like rat model using MRI biomarkers during childhood and adolescence

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by social interaction deficits and repetitive behaviors. Recent research has linked that gut dysbiosis may contribute to ASD-like behaviors. However, the exact developmental time point at which gut microbiota alterations affect brain function and behavior in patients with ASD remains unclear. We hypothesized that ASD-related brain microstructural changes and gut dysbiosis induce metabolic dysregulation and proinflammatory responses, which collectively contribute to the social behavioral deficits observed in early childhood. We used an autistic-like rat model that was generated via prenatal valproic acid exposure. We analyzed brain microstructural changes using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and examined microbiota, blood, and fecal samples for inflammation biomarkers. The ASD model rats exhibited significant brain microstructural changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and thalamus; reduced microbiota diversity (Prevotellaceae and Peptostreptococcaceae); and altered metabolic signatures. The shift in microbiota diversity and density observed at postnatal day (PND) 35, which is a critical developmental period, underscored the importance of early ASD interventions. We identified a unique metabolic signature in the ASD model, with elevated formate and reduced acetate and butyrate levels, indicating a dysregulation in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) metabolism. Furthermore, increased astrocytic and microglial activation and elevated proinflammatory cytokines—interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)—were observed, indicating immune dysregulation. This study provided insights into the complex interplay between the brain and the gut, and indicated DTI metrics as potential imaging-based biomarkers in ASD, thus emphasizing the need for early childhood interventions.

Unraveling Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Signalling Pathways as Potential Targets for Therapeutic Intervention in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Introduction: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) presents a multifaceted challenge with limited therapeutic options and a need for early biomarkers. Understanding disrupted signalling pathways offers promise for intervention and assessment. Methods: Literature review spanning genetic, pre-clinical, and patient studies elucidating pathways implicated in ASD pathogenesis, including melatonin, mTOR, Retinoic acid, Hedgehog, Notch and Wnt signalling. Results: Core components of key signalling pathways, such as melatonin, mTOR, Retinoic acid, Hedgehog, Notch and Wnt, are dysregulated in ASD. These pathways regulate crucial aspects of the nervous system, including immune function, neuronal growth, neurotransmission, and metabolism. Discussion: Manipulating these pathways could potentially modify ASD traits by influencing brain development and immune homeostasis. Targeting specific nodes within these pathways may offer novel therapeutic approaches for ASD management. Additionally, identifying biomarkers associated with pathway dysregulation could enable earlier diagnosis and monitoring of disease progression. Conclusion: Understanding the intricate interplay of signalling pathways in ASD pathogenesis provides insights into potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers. Further research into the manipulation of these pathways and their impact on ASD traits is warranted to advance personalized treatment strategies and improve outcomes for individuals with ASD.

Application of Mixed Reality Technologies in Autism Treatment and Neurodiversity Support

Abstract: This comprehensive review explores the application of Mixed Reality (MR) technologies in treating Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and supporting people with neurodiversity. It examines the potential of MR to create immersive, personalized interventions for social skills training, communication enhancement, and behavioral therapy. The paper discusses the technical considerations in implementing MR systems, including hardware requirements, software development, and user interface design tailored for neurodiverse individuals. It also addresses the challenges and future directions in this field, including ethical considerations, the need for clinical validation, and the integration of MR with existing therapeutic approaches. By synthesizing current research and identifying areas for future investigation, this review highlights the transformative potential of MR in revolutionizing ASD therapy and support.

Investigating The Effect of Combined Nutritional Supplementation in the Management of Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Progression of Social and Communication Skills: A Nonrandomized Interventional Study

In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of nutritional supplementation as a method of treating autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The aim of our study is to investigate the effect of using combined supplementation on treating the symptoms of Autism. In this study, we conducted a nonrandomized, nonblinded trial where we followed up with patients with ASD who were diagnosed through the CARS2-ST scale and evaluated through the Vineland-3 scale within two visits. The patients were divided into control and intervention groups where training only and supplementation with training were used, respectively. Results: The study included a total of 115 participants, out of which 95 (82.6%) were assigned to the intervention group and 20 (17.4%) were assigned to the control group. Significant improvement was observed in the intervention group compared to the control group. It was observed that the CARS2 score for the intervention group was reduced by a mean of 16.1 points compared to only 4.45 mean points reduced in the control group. On the other hand, the Vineland-III scale was increased by a mean of 350.23 points in the intervention group, while the control group had an increase of only 41.3 points. Conclusion: Our study concludes that the use of combined supplementation along with behavioral training greatly reduces autism symptoms compared to training alone. Thus, our study can recommend the use of combined supplementation as a form of treatment for Autism. Further studies with randomization and blinding will be helpful in confirming the findings of our study.

Pharmacological intervention of behavioural traits and brain histopathology of prenatal valproic acid-induced mouse model of autism.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is one of the leading causes of distorted social communication, impaired speech, hyperactivity, anxiety, and stereotyped repetitive behaviour. The aetiology of ASD is complex; therefore, multiple drugs have been suggested to manage the symptoms. Studies with histamine H3 receptor (H3R) blockers and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) blockers are considered potential therapeutic agents for the management of various cognitive impairments. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the neuro-behavioural effects of Betahistine, an H3R antagonist, and Donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor on Swiss albino mouse model of autism. The mice were intraperitoneally injected with valproic acid (VPA) on the embryonic 12.5th day to induce autism-like symptoms in their offspring. This induced autism-like symptoms persists throughout the life. After administration of different experimental doses, various locomotor tests: Open Field, Hole-Board, Hole Cross and behavioural tests by Y-Maze Spontaneous Alternation and histopathology of brain were performed and compared with the control and negative control (NC1) groups of mice. The behavioural Y-Maze test exhibits significant improvement (p <0.01) on the short term memory of the test subjects upon administration of lower dose of Betahistine along with MAO-B inhibitor Rasagiline once compared with the NC1 group (VPA-exposed mice). Furthermore, the tests showed significant reduction in locomotion in line crossing (p <0.05), rearing (p <0.001) of the Open Field Test, and the Hole Cross Test (p <0.01) with administration of higher dose of Betahistine. Both of these effects were observed upon administration of acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, Donepezil. Brain-histopathology showed lower neuronal loss and degeneration in the treated groups of mice in comparison with the NC1 VPA-exposed mice. Administration of Betahistine and Rasagiline ameliorates symptoms like memory deficit and hyperactivity, proving their therapeutic effects. The effects found are dose dependent. The findings suggest that H3R might be a viable target for the treatment of ASD.

Autism Spectrum Disorder: Latest Advances in Treatment

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition marked by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted, repetitive behaviours. Despite the global prevalence of ASD, its diagnosis and treatment remain challenging due to the absence of specific biomarkers and the heterogeneity of symptoms. ASD is incurable and current management options aim to minimize the symptoms and maximize the patients’ ability to function. There is no one standardized treatment for ASD at present, recommended medical interventions involve various therapies which include cognitive behavioral therapy alongside additional personalized pharmacological symptomatic treatments. New approach for ASD management includes sensory integration therapy (SIT) as well as dietary interventions, like gluten-free, casein-free and ketogenic diets. Other innovative treatment strategies are targeted at gut microbiome and include probiotic treatment and fecal microbiota transplant. In this review possible genetic variants associated with ASD are discussed as well as their influence on the manifestation and management of clinical symptoms. For a better understanding on how genetic variables impact drug effectiveness in individuals and the importance of pharmacogenetics in ASD. This paper aims to explore the available and possible treatment options as well the genetic components associated with ASD. In summary, this paper reviews the current and emerging treatment options for ASD.

Exploring Dietary Interventions in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) involves social communication difficulties and repetitive behaviors, and it has a growing prevalence worldwide. Symptoms include cognitive impairments, gastrointestinal (GI) issues, feeding difficulties, and psychological problems. A significant concern in ASD is food selectivity, leading to nutrient deficiencies. Common GI issues in ASD, such as constipation and irritable bowel syndrome, stem from abnormal gut flora and immune system dysregulation. Sensory sensitivities and behavioral challenges exacerbate these problems, correlating with neurological symptom severity. Children with ASD also exhibit higher oxidative stress due to low antioxidant levels like glutathione. Therapeutic diets, including ketogenic, high-antioxidant, gluten-free and casein-free, and probiotic-rich diets, show potential in managing ASD symptoms like behavior, communication, GI issues, and oxidative stress, though the evidence is limited. Various studies have focused on different populations, but there is increasing concern about the impact among children. This review aims to highlight the food preferences of the ASD population, analyze the effect of the physicochemical and nutritional properties of foods on the selectivity in its consumption, GI problems, and antioxidant deficiencies in individuals with ASD, and evaluate the effectiveness of therapeutic diets, including diets rich in antioxidants, gluten-free and casein-free, ketogenic and essential fatty acids, and probiotic-rich diets in managing these challenges.

Unveiling the role of IGF1R in autism spectrum disorder: a multi-omics approach to decipher common pathogenic mechanisms in the IGF signaling pathway.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition marked by impairments in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors. Emerging evidence suggests that the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway plays a critical role in ASD pathogenesis; however, the precise pathogenic mechanisms remain elusive. This study utilizes multi-omics approaches to investigate the pathogenic mechanisms of ASD susceptibility genes within the IGF pathway. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) revealed a significant enrichment of rare variants in key IGF signaling components, particularly the IGF receptor 1 (IGF1R), in a cohort of Chinese Han individuals diagnosed with ASD, as well as in ASD patients from the SFARI SPARK WES database. Subsequent single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of cortical tissues from children with ASD demonstrated elevated expression of IGF receptors in parvalbumin (PV) interneurons, suggesting a substantial impact on their development. Notably, IGF1R appears to mediate the effects of IGF2R on these neurons. Additionally, transcriptomic analysis of brain organoids derived from ASD patients indicated a significant association between IGF1R and ASD. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) and gene regulatory network (GRN) analyses further identified ASD susceptibility genes that interact with and regulate IGF1R expression. In conclusion, IGF1R emerges as a central node within the IGF signaling pathway, representing a potential common pathogenic mechanism and therapeutic target for ASD. These findings highlight the need for further investigation into the modulation of this pathway as a strategy for ASD intervention.

Amelioration of social impairments in autism: Possible role of vagal afferent stimulation in modification of the prefrontal-amygdala connectivity

Impairment in social interactions is a prominent feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The present hypothesis explains the possible role of vagal afferent stimulation in the modification of prefrontal-amygdala connectivity in the amelioration of social impairments in ASD. Currently, there is no definitive treatment for ASD. However, there is documented evidence showing that interventions that increase vagal tone lead to the improvement of autism-related social symptoms. However, the exact mechanism that explains the correlation between the elevation of vagal tone and the amelioration of autism-related symptoms has not been elucidated. In the present hypothesis, it is proposed that the increase in vagal tone affects the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) in the brainstem. The NTS has strong connections with other brainstem nuclei, such as the locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus. The aforementioned nuclei are the main sources of norepinephrine and serotonin, with extensive projections to various brain areas, especially the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and amygdala. PFC-amygdala functional connectivity plays an important role in social behavior and emotion regulation. Therefore, visceral stimulation, which subsequently increases the vagal tone, possibly leads to the improvement of autistic social deficits through the enhancement of PFC-amygdala functional connectivity. Further investigations are needed to evaluate the function of the mentioned neural pathways during visceral stimulation in individuals with ASD.