Tread Pattern Research Articles

Vibroacoustic simulation for truck tire tread noise prediction

In the last years, the introduction to the market of electric vehicles and a new labeling system introduced by the European Commission raised a strong interest in the noise produced by the tire-road interaction. The reduction of noise emissions became a strong challenge for the tire manufacturers that are constantly in need of developing new simulation tools capable of predicting the noise emitted by a tire. In this paper, the application of a simulation methodology capable of predicting the noise performance of a tire is shown and validated by means of experimental data. The experimental activities consisted of the acquisitions of noise produced by three truck tires made up of a particular tread pattern in which a single geometric feature is analyzed in each configuration, in a near field indoor condition. The simulation process aims to faithfully reproduce the procedure of the experimental test and involves the use of non-linear explicit finite element analysis followed by a vibroacoustic simulation to account for the radiated noise by structural vibrations and fluid-pumping.

The impact of tyre tread pattern design parameters on accelerated pass-by noise

Road-Traffic noise is one of the major environmental issues globally. Considering its effects on human health, international standards have been developed and emission limits have been adopted. In Europe, these regulations are becoming more stringent and challenging the automotive industry. There are two legislative Pass-by-noise test methods: Normal Pass-By-Noise (R117) for Tyre legislation and Accelerated Pass-By-Noise (R51) for vehicle legislation. For OE (Original Equipment) business meeting strict Accelerated Pass-By-Noise target is necessary for the Tyre industry because Tyre is a major influencing factor in overall vehicle noise. This paper explores the relationship between the parameters of tyre tread pattern and their effect on accelerated pass-by noise. The investigation shows how specific characteristics of the tread pattern, such as design, groove geometry, and other relevant factors, contribute to the overall noise generated during accelerated pass-by noise measurements.

An analysis of tire radiation properties using dispersion diagrams

Road traffic noise created by tire/road interaction not only depends on the road surface properties and the tire tread pattern geometry, but also on the tire construction. Besides the footprint shape, the tire construction can also affect the radiation efficiency of the tire modes. Dispersion diagrams represent the circumferential mode number of a mode shape as a function of its natural frequency. Identification of key branches in the dispersion diagram for a tire can help in understanding tire noise radiation under working conditions. After performing a cluster analysis, where all points belonging to the same branch associated with a particular cross sectional mode shape deformation are identified, differences in tire specification are considered, and their respective dispersion diagrams are compared. First results reveal that by changing the tire stiffness (e.g. by increasing belt angle or inflation pressure) the shape and slope of the different branches are changing. Which branches remain unchanged, and which are most sensitive to these changes can reveal how differences in tire structural composition influence the modal wavelength and consequently the radiation efficiency of the different modes.

Correction to: Space–time isogeometric analysis of tire aerodynamics with complex tread pattern, road contact, and tire deformation

Correction to: Space–time isogeometric analysis of tire aerodynamics with complex tread pattern, road contact, and tire deformation

Tire Texture Monitoring (VGG 19 VS Efficient Net b7)

Tires are crucial components of vehicles, continuously in contact with the road. Monitoring tire conditions is vital for safety and performance, as degradation in tire treads and sidewalls can affect traction, fuel efficiency, longevity, and road noise. This research leverages both VGG19 and Efficient Net B7 algorithms to enhance tire image rendering, addressing limitations of traditional techniques. Using a binary classification algorithm, we classify tire images as healthy or cracked. By fine-tuning VGG19 and EfficientNet B7 on a specialized tire dataset, we achieve high-quality, photorealistic renderings. Our results demonstrate remarkable improvements in texture quality and visual realism compared to traditional methods. The rendered images exhibit finer details and more accurate representations of the tire’s tread patterns and material properties. This research contributes to the field of computer graphics by presenting a novel application of deep learning techniques to a specific industrial need, paving the way for future advancements in high-quality rendering of complex tire textures. Key Words: VGG19,Photorealistic rendering, deep learning.

Space–time isogeometric analysis of tire aerodynamics with complex tread pattern, road contact, and tire deformation

AbstractThe space–time (ST) computational method “ST-SI-TC-IGA” and recently-introduced complex-geometry isogeometric analysis (IGA) mesh generation methods have enabled high-fidelity computational analysis of tire aerodynamics with near-actual tire geometry, road contact, tire deformation, and aerodynamic influence of the car body. The tire geometries used in the computations so far included the longitudinal and transverse grooves. Here, we bring the tire geometry much closer to an actual tire geometry by using a complex, asymmetric tread pattern. The complexity of the tread pattern required an updated version of the NURBS Surface-to-Volume Guided Mesh Generation (NSVGMG) method, which was introduced recently and is robust even in mesh generation for complex shapes with distorted boundaries. The core component of the ST-SI-TC-IGA is the ST Variational Multiscale (ST-VMS) method, and the other key components are the ST Slip Interface (ST-SI) and ST Topology Change (ST-TC) methods and the ST Isogeometric Analysis (ST-IGA). They all play a key role. The ST-TC, uniquely offered by the ST framework, enables moving-mesh computation even with the topology change created by the contact between the tire and the road. It deals with the contact while maintaining high-resolution flow representation near the tire.The computational analysis we present is the first of its kind and shows the effectiveness of the ST-SI-TC-IGA and NSVGMG in tire aerodynamic analysis with complex tread pattern, road contact, and tire deformation.

An adapted two-step approach to simulate nonlinear vibrations of patterned tires rolling on a smooth surface

The tire/road noise is one of the major problems facing the tire industry due to the nuisance felt by the vehicle's driver and passengers. Moreover, it is expected in the coming years that this sound nuisance will be one of the main sources of vehicle noise due to the transition from combustion engine driven vehicles to electric vehicles. Tire manufacturers have therefore refined the design of their tire structures to find technological solutions to reduce traffic noise. Tire/road noise is also generated by various mechanisms which depend on different parameters such as the properties of the tire, road texture and driving conditions. This noise is partly caused by the acoustic radiation induced by the tire vibrations due to contacts with the road. The simulation and analysis of the tire's vibrations remains a challenge for the tire industry. Indeed, the simulation of the full dynamic response of a rolling patterned tire requires not only taking onto account various nonlinearities but also the multi-scale nature of the generated dynamic response. Contrary to a straightforward strategy that consists in using a time integrator to predict the multi-scale dynamic response, the strategy proposed in this study is based on a two-step approach to separate the dynamics occurring at different scales. The mathematical formulation of the proposed method is detailed as are the different modeling choices to simulate tire rolling under imposed load. The sensitivity of the tire's vibrations response is analyzed under different rolling conditions and with respect to certain key tire tread pattern parameters.

Analysis of Vibration Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Complex Tread Pattern Tires Based on Finite Element Method

The vibration of the tires significantly impacts a vehicle’s ride comfort and noise level; however, the current analysis of tire vibration characteristics often involves excessive simplification in their models, leading to a reduction in model accuracy. To analyze the tire vibrational properties and the influence of its design and service conditions, a combined modeling technology was developed to construct a three-dimensional (3D) finite element model of a 205/55R16 specification radial tire with intricate tread patterns. The accuracy and reliability of the simulation model was verified through vibration modal tests. Based on the vibration mode theory, the Lanczos method provided by ABAQUS was adopted to analyze the modal characteristics of the tire under free inflation and grounded conditions, and the effects of different inflation pressures, loads, operating conditions, and belt cord angles on the tire vibration characteristics were analyzed. The results indicate that grounding constraints will suppress the low order radial modal frequency of the tire and enhance the lateral modal frequency. The higher the order of the tire vibration mode, the greater the impact of inflation pressure. As the operating conditions change, the modal frequencies of all directions have the same trend of change, and as the ground load increases, the tire is prone to misalignment at lower lateral frequencies. The radial and lateral grounding modes of the tire are slightly affected by the change of the cord angle in the belt layer, but the circumferential grounding frequency decreases as the belt layer angle increases. These research findings offer a crucial foundation for the structural design of complex tread pattern tires, and also serve as a reference for addressing vibration and comfort issues encountered in the tire matching process.

Fidelity of Finite Element–Based Virtual Tire Assembly Models Used for Vehicle Noise, Vibration, and Harshness Structural-Borne Noise Performance Considering Vibrational Modal and Steady-State Dynamic Simulation

ABSTRACT The increasing presence of battery electric vehicles brings about new challenges to the noise, vibration, and harshness performance of tires. One of the new challenges involves the expansion of frequency range for structural-borne noise virtual predictions. Current standard virtual tire simplifies the tire geometry as an axisymmetric body, neglecting the effect of complex tread pattern. It is perceived that this simplification can lead to prediction error for a tire’s structural-borne noise performance at mid-frequency range (250∼500 Hz). This study investigates how different tread pattern representation affects the structural-borne noise prediction. This study uses linear, steady-state dynamics finite element simulations of a modified SAE J2710 test and traveling sinusoid test. The resulting frequency responses of the virtual tires and the computational time to obtain each frequency response are compared. The comparison shows that while including the 3D tread pattern does show some differences under certain conditions, it is not necessary to use this technique for every case, especially during the early evaluation stage.

Investigation of tyre rim protectors on the aerodynamics of a passenger vehicle

The wheels of a passenger vehicle contribute to a significant part of the vehicle’s aerodynamic drag. The previous research has shown that the flow is sensitive to small geometrical variations of the tyre, such as its shoulder profile and tread pattern. This work investigates the effect of altering the tyre profile in the transition region between the tyre and the rim by adding a so-called rim protector. Full-scale wind tunnel tests capturing forces, flow fields and surface pressures were conducted for three tyre variants in combination with two rim configurations on a crossover SUV. With a low rim protector, the forces and flow fields were similar to the reference tyre without a rim protector for both rims. With a wide, protruding, rim protector on the open rim, a larger and more outwashed front wheel wake was obtained with differences in the vortex structures, resulting in a drag penalty of 0.017CD\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$0.017~C_D$$\\end{document}. The altered front wheel wake reduced the shielding of the rear wheel, resulting in differences in the rear wheel wake and base pressure. With a closed rim, the differences with the wide rim protector were much smaller with only a slight drag increase compared to the reference, demonstrating that there can be a strong interaction between the tyre and rim design.

Tire noise prediction based on transfer learning and multi-modal fusion

Vehicle traffic noise has become an important factor in urban noise pollution. With the increase in the number of new-energy vehicles, the current situation of tire/road noise as one of the main noise sources of automobiles is becoming increasingly prominent. Tire noise prediction is the basis for optimizing the design of low-noise tires, providing a reference basis for tire design with low-noise performance. This paper used deep learning methods to predict the noise performance of TBR radial tires. We obtained descriptive statistical features of tire structure and tread pattern images as input to the model, and used measured tire/road noise as output, then we constructed a multi-modal tire noise dataset. Comparing the prediction performance of three pre-trained transfer models such as Resnet18, VGG16, and Inception V3 on the tire pattern images, the Resnet18 had the best prediction effect. Resnet18 was selected as a feature extractor to extract image features, which fuse with the tire structural features at the feature level. The experiment constructed the TLMF-TRNP model to predict tire noise. The experimental results of the TLMF-TRNP model indicated that RMSE, MAE, and R2 were 0.1337, 0.0948, and 0.9864 respectively, achieving ideal prediction accuracy on a small-scale tire noise dataset and controlling the absolute error of the test tires within ±0.4 dB effectively. An accurate tire noise prediction model will provide a theoretical basis for tire design with low noise tires.

The influence of the tread pattern on the performance of a tractor engine

The Republic of Uzbekistan is currently undertaking many reforms to improve all sectors of the economy and business, to bring the products of our enterprises to international markets in order to increase exports, as well as methods to improve the competitiveness of goods. Examples include the creation of new economic zones and the extension of incentives in existing trade and economic zones. The field of agricultural machinery plays a major role in the economy of our country, so improving all aspects of this industry, will give a significant boost to the economy of the country as a whole. This article deals with tractor tyres, and more precisely the influence of tread pattern, on technical and economic performance of tractors under sandy soil conditions. It will also highlight new designs and innovations in tractor tyres from the world's manufacturers, which improve the off-road capability, improve tractor economy, increase tyre life, and give a great advantage in application over standard tyres.

拖拉机轮胎在松软土壤上的牵引特性评价：仿真与试验研究

In this study, a tire-soil rolling contact model based on the finite element method was established to determine the traction characteristics of the tire on the loose soil. Considering the soil parameters and tire parameters (loads, slip, inflation pressure and tread pattern), the influence of traction characteristics of the tire was obtained, taking tire sinkage and gross traction as evaluation indexes. The correctness of the tire-soil rolling contact model was verified by carrying out the soil bin-single wheel experiments. The results of the simulation and test showed that with the increase of load and sinkage of the tire, the gross traction tended to increase, thus enhancing the tire traction characteristics. With the increase of slip, the tire sinkage and gross traction increased, and the best tire traction characteristics were exhibited at a slip of 20%. Within the rated inflation pressure, as the inflation pressure increased, the tire sinkage decreased, the tire gross traction decreased and the traction characteristics of the tire were weakened. Under simulated working conditions, the traction characteristics of the tire first increased and then decreased with the increase of the number of tire lug pairs, and 15 tire lug pairs performed best. This paper presents a further study on the interaction between tires and soil under different influencing factors, and its findings provide an effective reference for predicting the traction performance assessment of tractor tires on working roads.

Regarding the issue of aquaplaning and the interaction of a car tire with the road surface through a layer of water

Problem. The process of interaction of a pneumatic tire of a car wheel with the surface of the road surface, which is covered with a layer of water, affects the safety of the vehicle movement, therefore, the assessment of the effect of aquaplaning when writing the conclusions of the auto technical examination is an actual direction of research. The study of the effect of aquaplaning will allow forensic experts and specialists in the automotive industry to make an objective analysis and form non-subjective conclusions. Goal. The purpose of the work is to determine the design parameters and operational features of the pneumatic tire, as well as the speed of the vehicle on the process of interaction of the car wheel tire with the surface of the road coating, which is covered with a layer of water. Methodology. The approaches adopted in the work to solve the set goals are based on the theory of aquaplaning, the theory of the interaction of the pneumatic tire with the road surface, the theory of the vehicle and the laws of theoretical mechanics. Results. The obtained results of the research in the form of an analysis make it possible to assess the impact of the aquaplaning effect of a pneumatic tire on road safety. It was established that the thickness of the water layer affects the conditions for meeting the requirements established by the traffic rules, since the decrease in the height of the tire tread pattern leads to unstable contact of the tire with the road surface. Originality. The results of the study provided an opportunity to get an idea of the influence of the design parameters of tires on road safety in terms of forming the conclusions of the motor-technical examination. Practical value. The obtained results can be recommended to forensic experts when writing expert opinions and for expert research

Identification of the Vehicle of a Hit-and-Run Accident Based on Patterned Evidence

Leaving the scene of the traffic crash without reporting is called hit-and-run collision and tracing the alleged vehicle is the main challenge in delivering justice. However, it is not very difficult to trace the vehicle by using Locard’s principle when a vehicle leaves trace evidence either on the body/ clothing or scene. Hit-and-run collisions are a punishable offence as they delay crash notification thereby delaying emergency response which increases the likelihood of traffic fatalities. The following case discussion is based on a dead body of a foot cyclist found at a bend on a byroad in a rural area.He was a 72-year-old carpenter, non-alcoholic, driving an improvised foot cycle run by a motor, which could run up to 40 Kilometres per hour. There was a tire mark on the back side of his shirt. According to the police, the foot cycle had been found fallen on the road without runover injuries. The autopsy revealed multiple blunt force injuries including grazed abrasions on the head, chest, and limbs. Internal organs did not show any significant evidence of natural illness or intoxication. However, there were no paint, grease, glass fragments, etc., or CCTV record evidence. However, a motorcyclist saw a tractor with a trailer stopped beside the victim and the driver was standing by the side and drove off in a while.The absence of paint or grease on the body suggested that the floorboard of the offending vehicle could be higher. The alleged tractor with the trailer was taken into police custody based on a tipoff. According to the Government analyst’s opinion, the tire mark on the shirt was compatible with the tire tread pattern of the right rear tire of the tractor-trailer. The cause of death was multiple injuries to the head and chest due to run-over by a moving vehicle. The importance of examination of clothing in road crashes especially in hit and run is reemphasized in this case.

Study of tire radiation noise focusing on structural vibration and tread pattern

Tires are the only parts in contact with the road surface and have four major functions: supporting the weight of the vehicle, transmitting driving and braking forces, changing and maintaining the direction of travel, and mitigating road impacts. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of a sustainable society, there is a need to reduce rolling resistance and weight. In addition, the noise generated by the interaction between the tire and the road is becoming one of the main causes of traffic noise, so reducing both rolling resistance and tire noise is an important issue. This paper introduces a study of the causes of tire road noise and efforts to reduce that. One is study the vibration radiation sound that contradict low rolling resistance. Moreover, a study of reducing noise caused by tread pattern, and a study of a method to reduce acoustic resonance generated in the space between the grooves and the road surface using a resonator are described.

Synthesis of equivalent sources for tyre/road noise simulation and analysis of the vehicle influence on sound propagation

Road traffic noise affects the well-being of people living in urban areas. Amongst the noise sources, tyre/road interaction plays a major role. In this context, predictive acoustic models can be useful for the tyre industry to design quiter tyres. This paper deals with a methodology for simulating tyre/road noise through equivalent monopoles, synthesised using an inverse problem approach, starting from indoor tests performed in a semi-anechoic chamber. A drum with an ISO 10844 road replica is used to obtain realistic tread pattern and road roughness excitations. The experimental setup and a dedicated signal processing technique are described here. To perform the source synthesis, data is combined with acoustic finite element models based on a deformed treaded tyre geometry, in order to take the acoustic resonances at the tyre/road interface into account. The synthesised monopoles are then used to run a numerical simulation including a vehicle in order to consider its influence on sound propagation. The results are then validated by comparing them with indoor measurements.

Slip Risk Prediction Using Intelligent Insoles and a Slip Simulator

Slip and fall accidents are the leading cause of injuries for all ages, and for fatal injuries in adults over 65 years. Various factors, such as floor surface conditions and contaminants, shoe tread patterns, and gait behavior, affect the slip risk. Moreover, the friction between the shoe outsoles and the floor continuously changes as their surfaces undergo normal wear over time. However, continuous assessment of slip resistance is very challenging with conventional measurement techniques. This study addresses this challenge by introducing a novel approach that combines sensor fusion technology and machine learning techniques to create intelligent insoles designed for fall risk prediction. In addition, a state-of-the-art slip simulator, capable of mimicking the foot’s motion during a slip, was developed and utilized for the assessment of slipperiness between various shoes and floor surfaces. Data acquisition involved the collection of pressure data and three-axial accelerations using instrumented shoe insoles, complemented by friction coefficient measurements via the slip simulator. The collected dataset includes four types of shoes, three floor surfaces, and four surface conditions, including dry, wet, soapy, and oily. After preprocessing of the collected dataset, the simulator was used to train five different machine learning algorithms for slip risk classification. The trained algorithms provided promising results for slip risk prediction for different conditions, offering the potential to be employed in real-time slip risk prediction and safety enhancement.

Modelling Intrinsic Sources of Nonuniformity and Their Interplay

ABSTRACT Uniformity characteristics of a tire are a direct reflection of the quality of the manufacturing process that produced it. This is realized in the homogeneity of its different stiffnesses and dimensions around the tire. Evidently, this is the most closely monitored aspect for consistency, from the original equipment manufacturers and manufacturers alike, and the requirement for tighter acceptance criteria is ever-increasing. However, the authors endeavor to find the lowest theoretical level for the same, given the intrinsic sources. The current study attempts to establish a framework to investigate the effect of the most pronounced factors individually, their interplay, and how their combined effect can be minimized. The present work on a 185/65R15 passenger car radial tire attempts to determine the effect of variable pitch sequencing as well as splicing and tread runout for a patterned tire on radial force variation (RFV). The study is carried out using finite element simulation for it presents the opportunity to study the individual effects systemically and economically. The study reveals a nearly 20% of the specification limit can be due to tread pattern sequence while the effect of the overlapping components may vary by 10% of the same limit. The study also suggests spotting arrangements to target and avoid. Finally, the authors present a method, captured in a MATLAB program that benefits the tire designer, plant engineer, and quality control manager.

A Fast Approach to Optimize Tread Pattern Shape for Tire Noise Reduction

Impact force induced by tread pattern is one of the major mechanisms of tire noise; thus, how to reduce tire impact noise has been an important issue in regard to tire technology. In this paper, the mechanism of tire–pavement interaction noise is briefly described, and a prediction model for pattern noise is proposed. The prediction model was validated with indoor semi-anechoic chamber and pass-by noise experiments. Then, an optimization method for the tread pattern was proposed by using the basis vector method, and the synthetic pattern shape was generated through a linear combination of basis shape vectors. Finally, a novel multi-objective function was proposed, aimed at minimizing the impact noise generated by the tire pattern, and the weight factors of the basis vectors were optimized with a genetic algorithm. The method proposed in this paper can be used to evaluate or improve pattern performance and reduce trial and error in the pattern design stage.