Traumatic Brain Injury In Mice Research Articles

An injectable refrigerated hydrogel for inducing local hypothermia and neuroprotection against traumatic brain injury in mice

BackgroundHypothermia is a promising therapy for traumatic brain injury (TBI) in the clinic. However, the neuroprotective outcomes of hypothermia-treated TBI patients in clinical studies are inconsistent due to several severe side effects. Here, an injectable refrigerated hydrogel was designed to deliver 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) to achieve a longer period of local hypothermia for TBI treatment. Hydrogel has four advantages: (1) It can be injected into injured sites after TBI, where it forms a hydrogel and avoids the side effects of whole-body cooling. (2) Hydrogels can biodegrade and be used for controlled drug release. (3) Released T1AM can induce hypothermia. (4) This hydrogel has increased medical value given its simple operation and ability to achieve timely treatment.MethodsPol/T hydrogels were prepared by a low-temperature mixing method and characterized. The effect of the Pol/T hydrogel on traumatic brain injury in mice was studied. The degradation of the hydrogel at the body level was observed with a small animal imager. Brain temperature and body temperature were measured by brain thermometer and body thermometer, respectively. The apoptosis of peripheral nerve cells was detected by immunohistochemical staining. The protective effect of the hydrogels on the blood–brain barrier (BBB) after TBI was evaluated by the Evans blue penetration test. The protective effect of hydrogel on brain edema after injury in mice was detected by Magnetic resonance (MR) in small animals. The enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used to measure the levels of inflammatory factors. The effects of behavioral tests on the learning ability and exercise ability of mice after injury were evaluated.ResultsThis hydrogel was able to cool the brain to hypothermia for 12 h while maintaining body temperature within the normal range after TBI in mice. More importantly, hypothermia induced by this hydrogel leads to the maintenance of BBB integrity, the prevention of cell death, the reduction of the inflammatory response and brain edema, and the promotion of functional recovery after TBI in mice. This cooling method could be developed as a new approach for hypothermia treatment in TBI patients.ConclusionOur study showed that injectable and biodegradable frozen Pol/T hydrogels to induce local hypothermia in TBI mice can be used for the treatment of traumatic brain injury.Graphical

Sleep fragmentation after traumatic brain injury impairs behavior and conveys long-lasting impacts on neuroinflammation

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes a prolonged inflammatory response in the central nervous system (CNS) driven by microglia. Microglial reactivity is exacerbated by stress, which often provokes sleep disturbances. We have previously shown that sleep fragmentation (SF) stress after experimental TBI increases microglial reactivity and impairs hippocampal function 30 days post-injury (DPI). The neuroimmune response is highly dynamic the first few weeks after TBI, which is also when injury induced sleep-wake deficits are detected. Therefore, we hypothesized that even a few weeks of TBI SF stress would synergize with injury induced sleep-wake deficits to promote neuroinflammation and impair outcome. Here, we investigated the effects of environmental SF in a lateral fluid percussion model of mouse TBI. Half of the mice were undisturbed, and half were exposed to 5 h of SF around the onset of the light cycle, daily, for 14 days. All mice were then undisturbed 15–30 DPI, providing a period for SF stress recovery (SF-R). Mice exposed to SF stress slept more than those in control housing 7–14 DPI and engaged in more total daily sleep bouts during the dark period. However, SF stress did not exacerbate post-TBI sleep deficits. Testing in the Morris water maze revealed sex dependent differences in spatial reference memory 9–14 DPI with males performing worse than females. Post-TBI SF stress suppressed neurogenesis-related gene expression and increased inflammatory signaling in the cortex at 14 DPI. No differences in sleep behavior were detected between groups during the SF stress recovery period 15–30 DPI. Microscopy revealed cortical and hippocampal IBA1 and CD68 percent-area increased in TBI SF-R mice 30 DPI. Additionally, neuroinflammatory gene expression was increased, and synaptogenesis-related gene expression was suppressed in TBI-SF mice 30 DPI. Finally, IPA canonical pathway analysis showed post-TBI SF impaired and delayed activation of synapse-related pathways between 14 and 30 DPI. These data show that transient SF stress after TBI impairs recovery and conveys long-lasting impacts on neuroimmune function independent of continuous sleep deficits. Together, these finding support that even limited exposure to post-TBI SF stress can have lasting impacts on cognitive recovery and regulation of the immune response to trauma.

Single episode of moderate to severe traumatic brain injury leads to chronic neurological deficits and Alzheimer's-like pathological dementia.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the foremost causes of disability and mortality globally. While the scientific and medical emphasis is to save lives and avoid disability during acute period of injury, a severe health problem can manifest years after injury. For instance, TBI increases the risk of cognitive impairment in the elderly. Remote TBI history was reported to be a cause of the accelerated clinical trajectory of Alzheimer's disease-related dementia (ADRD) resulting in earlier onset of cognitive impairment and increased AD-associated pathological markers like greater amyloid deposition and cortical thinning. It is not well understood whether a single TBI event may increase the risk of dementia. Moreover, the cellular signaling pathways remain elusive for the chronic effects of TBI on cognition. We have hypothesized that a single TBI induces sustained neuroinflammation and disrupts cellular communication in a way that results later in ADRD pathology. To test this, we induced TBI in young adult CD1 mice and assessed the behavioral outcomes after 11months followed by pathological, histological, transcriptomic, and MRI assessment. On MRI scans, these mice showed significant loss of tissue, reduced CBF, and higher white matter injury compared to sham mice. We found these brains showed progressive atrophy, markers of ADRD, sustained astrogliosis, loss of neuronal plasticity, and growth factors even after 1-year post-TBI. Because of progressive neurodegeneration, these mice had motor deficits, showed cognitive impairments, and wandered randomly in open field. We, therefore, conclude that progressive pathology after adulthood TBI leads to neurodegenerative conditions such as ADRD and impairs neuronal functions.

The Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis ameliorates neuroinflammation in hypothermic traumatic brain injury in mice by modulating phenotypic transformation of microglia.

The Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis is critically involved in treating several diseases; For example, Ang-(1-7) improves inflammatory response and neurological function after traumatic brain injury and inhibits post-inflammatory hypothermia. However, its function in traumatic brain injury (TBI) combined with seawater immersion hypothermia remains unclear. Here, we used a mice model of hypothermic TBI and a BV2 cell model of hypothermic inflammation to investigate whether the Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis is involved in ameliorating hypothermic TBI. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR, western blotting assay, and immunofluorescence assay were performed to confirm microglia polarization and cytokine regulation. Hematoxylin-eosin staining, Nissl staining, and immunohistochemical assay were conducted to assess the extent of hypothermic TBI-induced damage and the ameliorative effect of Ang-(1-7) in mice. An open field experiment and neurological function scoring with two approaches were used to assess the degree of recovery and prognosis in mice. After hypothermic TBI establishment in BV2 cells, the Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis induced phenotypic transformation of microglia from M1 to M2, inhibited IL-6 and IL-1β release, and upregulated IL-4 and IL-10 levels. After hypothermic TBI development in mice, intraperitoneally administered Ang-(1-7) attenuated histological damage and promoted neurological recovery. These findings suggest that hypothermia exacerbates TBI-induced damage and that the Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis can ameliorate hypothermic TBI and directly affect prognosis.

Intervention of CXCL5 attenuated neuroinflammation and promoted neurological recovery after traumatic brain injury.

Neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury (TBI) exhibits a strong correlation with neurological impairment, which is a crucial target for improving the prognosis of TBI patients. The involvement of CXCL5/CXCR2 signaling in the regulation of neuroinflammation in brain injury models has been documented. Therefore, the effects of CXCL5 on post-TBI neuroinflammation and its potential mechanisms need to be explored. Following TBI, C57BL/6 mice were administered intraperitoneal injections of a CXCL5 neutralizing antibody (Nab-CXCL5) (5 mg/kg, 2 times/day). Subsequently, the effects on neuroinflammation, nerve injury, and neurological function were assessed. Nab-CXCL5 significantly reduced the release of inflammatory factors, inhibited the formation of inflammatory microglia and astrocytes, and reduced the infiltration of peripheral immune cells in TBI mice. Additionally, this intervention led to a reduction in neuronal impairment and facilitated the restoration of sensorimotor abilities, as well as improvements in learning and memory functions. Peripheral administration of the Nab-CXCL5 to TBI mice could suppress neuroinflammation, reduce neurological damage, and improve neurological function. Our data suggest that neutralizing antibodies against CXCL5 (Nab-CXCL5) may be a promising agent for treating TBI.

Neuroinflammation Plays a Potential Role in the Medulla Oblongata After Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice as Revealed by Nontargeted Metabonomics Analysis.

Moderate traumatic brain injury (mTBI) involves a series of complex pathophysiological processes in not only the area in direct contact with mechanical violence but also in other brain regions far from the injury site, which may be important factors influencing subsequent neurological dysfunction or death. The medulla oblongata (MO) is a key area for the maintenance of basic respiratory and circulatory functions, whereas the pathophysiological processes after mTBI have rarely drawn the attention of researchers. In this study, we established a closed-head cortical contusion injury model, identified 6 different time points that covered the acute, subacute, and chronic phases, and then used nontargeted metabolomics to identify and analyze the changes in differential metabolites (DMs) and metabolic pathways in the MO region. Our results showed that the metabolic profile of the MO region underwent specific changes over time: harmaline, riboflavin, and dephospho-coenzyme A were identified as the key DMs and play important roles in reducing inflammation, enhancing antioxidation, and maintaining homeostasis. Choline and glycerophospholipid metabolism was identified as the key pathway related to the changes in MO metabolism at different phases. In addition, we confirmed increases in the levels of inflammatory factors and the activation of astrocytes and microglia by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining, and these findings were consistent with the nontargeted metabolomic results. These findings suggest that neuroinflammation plays a central role in MO neuropathology after mTBI and provide new insights into the complex pathophysiologic mechanisms involved after mTBI.

Sex-specific and cell-specific regulation of ER stress and neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury in juvenile mice

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and neuroinflammation play an important role in secondary brain damage after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Due to the complex brain cytoarchitecture, multiple cell types are affected by TBI. However, cell type-specific and sex-specific responses to ER stress and neuroinflammation remain unclear. Here we investigated differential regulation of ER stress and neuroinflammatory pathways in neurons and microglia during the acute phase post-injury in a mouse model of impact acceleration TBI in both males and females. We found that TBI resulted in significant weight loss only in males, and sensorimotor impairment and depressive-like behaviors in both males and females at the acute phase post-injury. By concurrently isolating neurons and microglia from the same brain sample of the same animal, we were able to evaluate the simultaneous responses in neurons and microglia towards ER stress and neuroinflammation in both males and females. We discovered that the ER stress and anti-inflammatory responses were significantly stronger in microglia, especially in female microglia, compared with the male and female neurons. Whereas the degree of phosphorylated-tau (pTau) accumulation was significantly higher in neurons, compared with the microglia. In conclusion, TBI resulted in behavioral deficits and cell type-specific and sex-specific responses to ER stress and neuroinflammation, and abnormal protein accumulation at the acute phase after TBI in immature mice.

Deleterious effect of sustained neuroinflammation in pediatric traumatic brain injury

IntroductionDespite improved management of traumatic brain injury (TBI), it still leads to lifelong sequelae and disability, particularly in children. Chronic neuroinflammation (the so-called tertiary phase), in particular, microglia/macrophage and astrocyte reactivity, is among the main mechanisms suspected of playing a role in the generation of lesions associated with TBI. The role of acute neuroinflammation is now well understood, but its persistent effect and impact on the brain, particularly during development, are not. Here, we investigated the long-term effects of pediatric TBI on the brain in a mouse model. MethodsPediatric TBI was induced in mice on postnatal day (P) 7 by weight-drop trauma. The time course of neuroinflammation and myelination was examined in the TBI mice. They were also assessed by magnetic resonance, functional ultrasound, and behavioral tests at P45. ResultsTBI induced robust neuroinflammation, characterized by acute microglia/macrophage and astrocyte reactivity. The long-term consequences of pediatric TBI studied on P45 involved localized scarring astrogliosis, persistent microgliosis associated with a specific transcriptomic signature, and a long-lasting myelination defect consisting of the loss of myelinated axons, a decreased level of myelin binding protein, and severe thinning of the corpus callosum. These results were confirmed by reduced fractional anisotropy, measured by diffusion tensor imaging, and altered inter- and intra-hemispheric connectivity, measured by functional ultrasound imaging. In addition, adolescent mice with pediatric TBI showed persistent social interaction deficits and signs of anxiety and depressive behaviors. ConclusionsWe show that pediatric TBI induces tertiary neuroinflammatory processes associated with white matter lesions and altered behavior. These results support our model as a model for preclinical studies for tertiary lesions following TBI.

PH-sensitive cationic nanoparticles for endosomal cell-free DNA scavenging against acute inflammation

Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) released from dead cells could be a player in some autoimmune disorders by activating Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) and inducing proinflammatory cytokines. Cationic nanoparticles (cNPs) address cfDNA clearance, yet challenges persist, including toxicity, low specificity and ineffectiveness against endocytosed cfDNA. This study introduced pH-sensitive cNPs, reducing off-target effects and binding cfDNA at inflammatory sites. This unique approach inhibits the TLR9 pathway, offering a novel strategy for inflammation modulation. Synthesized cNPs, with distinct cationic moieties, exhibit varied pKa values, enhancing cfDNA binding. Comprehensive studies elucidate the mechanism, demonstrating minimal extracellular binding, enhanced endosomal DNA binding, and optimal tumor necrosis factor-α suppression. In a traumatic brain injury mice model, pH-sensitive cNPs effectively suppress inflammatory cytokines, highlighting their potential in acute inflammation regulation.

Valproic Acid Treatment after Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice Alleviates Neuronal Death and Inflammation in Association with Increased Plasma Lysophosphatidylcholines.

The histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) valproic acid (VPA) has neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI), which have been partially attributed to the epigenetic disinhibition of the transcription repressor RE1-Silencing Transcription Factor/Neuron-Restrictive Silencer Factor (REST/NRSF). Additionally, VPA changes post-traumatic brain injury (TBI) brain metabolism to create a neuroprotective environment. To address the interconnection of neuroprotection, metabolism, inflammation and REST/NRSF after TBI, we subjected C57BL/6N mice to experimental TBI and intraperitoneal VPA administration or vehicle solution at 15 min, 1, 2, and 3 days post-injury (dpi). At 7 dpi, TBI-induced an up-regulation of REST/NRSF gene expression and HDACi function of VPA on histone H3 acetylation were confirmed. Neurological deficits, brain lesion size, blood-brain barrier permeability, or astrogliosis were not affected, and REST/NRSF target genes were only marginally influenced by VPA. However, VPA attenuated structural damage in the hippocampus, microgliosis and expression of the pro-inflammatory marker genes. Analyses of plasma lipidomic and polar metabolomic patterns revealed that VPA treatment increased lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs), which were inversely associated with interleukin 1 beta (Il1b) and tumor necrosis factor (Tnf) gene expression in the brain. The results show that VPA has mild neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects likely originating from favorable systemic metabolic changes resulting in increased plasma LPCs that are known to be actively taken up by the brain and function as carriers for neuroprotective polyunsaturated fatty acids.

An antioxidant and anti-ER stress combination therapy elevates phosphorylation of α-Syn at serine 129 and alleviates post-TBI PD-like pathology in a sex-specific manner in mice

Clinical studies have shown that traumatic brain injury (TBI) increases the onset of Parkinson's disease (PD) in later life by >50%. Oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and inflammation are the major drivers of both TBI and PD pathologies. We presently evaluated if curtailing oxidative stress and ER stress concomitantly using a combination of apocynin and tert-butylhydroquinone and salubrinal during the acute stage after TBI in mice reduces the severity of late-onset PD-like pathology. The effect of multiple low doses of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) on post-TBI neurodegeneration was also evaluated. The combo therapy elevated the level of phosphorylation at serine 129 (pS129) of α-Syn in the pericontusional cortex of male mice at 72 h post-TBI. Motor and cognitive deficits induced by TBI lasted at least 3 months and the combo therapy curtailed these deficits in both sexes. At 3 months post-TBI, male mice given combo therapy exhibited significantly lesser α-Syn aggregates in the SN and higher TH+ cells in the SNpc, compared to vehicle control. However, the aggregate number was not significantly different between groups of female mice. Moreover, TBI-induced loss of TH+ cells was negligible in female mice irrespective of treatment. The MPTP treatment aggravated PD-like pathology in male mice but had a negligible effect on the loss of TH+ cells in female mice. Thus, the present study indicates that mitigation of TBI-induced oxidative stress and ER stress at the acute stage could potentially reduce the risk of post-TBI PD-like pathology at least in male mice, plausibly by elevating pS129-α-Syn level.

Therapeutic efficacy of cinnamein, a component of balsam of Tolu/Peru, in controlled cortical impact mouse model of TBI

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a major health concern which causes long-term neurological disability particularly in war veterans, athletes and young adults. In spite of intense clinical and research investigations, there is no effective therapy to cease the pathogenesis of the disease. It is believed that axonal injury during TBI is potentiated by neuroinflammation and demyelination and/or failure to remyelination. This study highlights the use of naturally available cinnamein, also chemically known as benzyl cinnamate, in inhibiting neuroinflammation, promoting remyelination and combating the disease process of controlled cortical impact (CCI)-induced TBI in mice. Oral delivery of cinnamein through gavage brought down the activation of microglia and astrocytes to decrease the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1) in hippocampus and cortex of TBI mice. Cinnamein treatment also stimulated remyelination in TBI mice as revealed by PLP and A2B5 double-labeling, luxol fast blue (LFB) staining and axonal double-labeling for neurofilament and MBP. Furthermore, oral cinnamein reduced the size of lesion cavity in the brain, improved locomotor functions and restored memory and learning in TBI mice. These results suggest a new neuroprotective property of cinnamein that may be valuable in the treatment of TBI.

Resveratrol alleviates endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced cell death and improves functional prognosis after traumatic brain injury in mice

Resveratrol alleviates endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced cell death and improves functional prognosis after traumatic brain injury in mice

Pre-clinical evaluation of 99mTc-labeled chalcone derivative for amyloid-β imaging post-head trauma.

Aβ42 plaque formation is one of the preliminary pathologic events that occur post traumatic brain injury (TBI) which is also among the most noteworthy hallmarks of AD. Their pre symptomatic detection is therefore vital for better disease management. Chalcone-picolinic acid chelator derivative, 6-({[(6-carboxypyridin-2-yl)methyl](2-{4-[(2E)-3-[4-(dimethyl amino)phenyl]prop-2-enoyl]phenoxy}ethyl)amino}methyl)pyridine-2-carboxylic acid, Py-chal was synthesized to selectively identify amyloid plaques formed post head trauma using SPECT imaging by stable complexation to 99mTc with > 97% efficiency without compromising amyloid specificity. The binding potential of the Py-chal ligand to amyloid plaques remained high as confirmed by in vitro binding assay and photophysical spectra. Further, the Py-chal complex stained amyloid aggregates in the brain sections of rmTBI mice model. In vivo scintigraphy in TBI mice model displayed high uptake followed by high retention while the healthy rabbits displayed higher brain uptake followed by a rapid washout attributed to absence of amyloid plaques. Higher uptake in brain of TBI model was also confirmed by ex vivo biodistribution analysis wherein brain uptake of 3.38 ± 0.2% ID/g at 2min p.i. was observed for TBI mice model. This was followed by prolonged retention and more than twofold higher activity as compared to sham mice brain. This preliminary data suggests the specificity of the radiotracer for amyloid detection post head trauma and applicability of 99mTc labeled Py-chal complex for TBI-induced β-amyloid SPECT imaging.

Injectable Hydrogels Based on Hyaluronic Acid and Gelatin Combined with Salvianolic Acid B and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor for Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to structural damage in the brain, and is one of the major causes of disability and death in the world. Herein, we developed a composite injectable hydrogel (HA/Gel) composed of hyaluronic acid (HA) and gelatin (Gel), loaded with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and salvianolic acid B (SAB) for treatment of TBI. The HA/Gel hydrogels were formed by the coupling of phenol-rich tyramine-modified HA (HA-TA) and tyramine-modified Gel (Gel-TA) catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). SEM results showed that HA/Gel hydrogel had a porous structure. Rheological test results showed that the hydrogel possessed appropriate rheological properties, and UV spectrophotometry results showed that the hydrogel exhibited excellent SAB release performance. The results of LIVE/DEAD staining, CCK-8 and Phalloidin/DAPI fluorescence staining showed that the HA/Gel hydrogel possessed good cell biocompatibility. Moreover, the hydrogels loaded with SAB and VEGF (HA/Gel/SAB/VEGF) could effectively promote the proliferation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). In addition, the results of H&E staining, CD31 and α-SMA immunofluorescence staining showed that the HA/Gel/SAB/VEGF hydrogel possessed good in vivo biocompatibility and pro-angiogenic ability. Furthermore, immunohistochemical results showed that the injection of HA/Gel/SAB/VEGF hydrogel to the injury site could effectively reduce the volume of defective tissues in traumatic brain injured mice. Our results suggest that the injection of HA/Gel hydrogel loaded with SAB and VEGF might provide a new approach for therapeutic brain tissue repair after traumatic brain injury.

Susceptibility to Hepatotoxic Drug-Induced Liver Injury Increased After Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice.

The early stages of brain injury can induce acute liver injury, which can be recovered in the short term. Continued medication treatment during hospitalization for brain injury alleviates the prognosis and contributes to a high incidence of drug-induced liver injury (DILI). We hypothesize that there is an interaction between changes in the hepatic environment after brain injury and liver injury produced by intensive drug administration, leading to an upregulation of the organism's sensitivity to DILI. In this study, mice models of TBI were established by controlled cortical impact (CCI) and models of DILI were constructed by acetaminophen (APAP). All mice were divided into four groups: Sham, TBI, APAP, and TBI+APAP, and related liver injury indicators in liver and serum were detected by Western blot, Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), and immunohistochemical staining. The results suggested that liver injury induced in the early stages of brain injury recovered in 3 days, but this state could still significantly aggravate DILI, represented by higher liver enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase [AST] and alanine aminotransferase [ALT]), oxidative stress (increase in malondialdehyde [MDA] concentration and deregulation of glutathione [GSH] and superoxide dismutase [SOD] activities), inflammatory response (activation of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, and increased messenger RNA [mRNA] and protein levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], interleukin [IL]-6, and IL-1β), and apoptosis (TUNEL assay, upregulation of Bax protein and deregulation of Bcl-2 protein). In summary, our results suggested that TBI is a potential susceptibility factor for DILI and exacerbates DILI.

Hypidone hydrochloride (YL-0919) ameliorates functional deficits after traumatic brain injury in mice by activating the sigma-1 receptor for antioxidation

Abstract Traumatic brain injury involves complex pathophysiological mechanisms, among which oxidative stress significantly contributes to the occurrence of secondary injury. In this study, we evaluated hypidone hydrochloride (YL-0919), a self-developed antidepressant with selective sigma-1 receptor agonist properties, and its associated mechanisms and targets in traumatic brain injury. Behavioral experiments to assess functional deficits were followed by assessment of neuronal damage through histological analyses and examination of blood-brain barrier permeability and brain edema. Next, we investigated the antioxidative effects of YL-0919 by assessing the levels of traditional markers of oxidative stress in vivo in mice and in vitro in HT22 cells. Finally, the targeted action of YL-0919 was verified by employing a sigma-1 receptor antagonist (BD-1047). Our findings demonstrated that YL-0919 markedly improved deficits in motor function and spatial cognition on day 3 post traumatic brain injury, while also decreasing neuronal mortality and reversing blood-brain barrier disruption and brain edema. Furthermore, YL-0919 effectively combated oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro. The protective effects of YL-0919 were partially inhibited by BD-1047. These results indicated that YL-0919 relieved impairments in motor and spatial cognition by restraining oxidative stress, a neuroprotective effect that was partially reversed by the sigma-1 receptor antagonist BD-1047. YL-0919 may have potential as a new treatment for traumatic brain injury.

TREM2 alleviates white matter injury after traumatic brain injury in mice might be mediated by regulation of DHCR24/LXR pathway in microglia.

White matter injury (WMI) is an important pathological process after traumatic brain injury (TBI). The correlation between white matter functions and the myeloid cells expressing triggering receptor-2 (TREM2) has been convincingly demonstrated. Moreover, a recent study revealed that microglial sterol metabolism is crucial for early remyelination after demyelinating diseases. However, the potential roles of TREM2 expression and microglial sterol metabolism in WMI after TBI have not yet been explored. Controlled cortical injury was induced in both wild-type (WT) and TREM2 depletion (TREM2 KO) mice to simulate clinical TBI. COG1410 was used to upregulate TREM2, while PLX5622 and GSK2033 were used to deplete microglia and inhibit the liver X receptor (LXR), respectively. Immunofluorescence, Luxol fast blue staining, magnetic resonance imaging, transmission electron microscopy, and oil red O staining were employed to assess WMI after TBI. Neurological behaviour tests and electrophysiological recordings were utilized to evaluate cognitive functions following TBI. Microglial cell sorting and transcriptomic sequencing were utilized to identify alterations in microglial sterol metabolism-related genes, while western blot was conducted to validate the findings. TREM2 expressed highest at 3 days post-TBI and was predominantly localized to microglial cells within the white matter. Depletion of TREM2 worsened aberrant neurological behaviours, and this phenomenon was mediated by the exacerbation of WMI, reduced renewal of oligodendrocytes, and impaired phagocytosis ability of microglia after TBI. Subsequently, the upregulation of TREM2 alleviated WMI, promoted oligodendrocyte regeneration, and ultimately facilitated the recovery of neurological behaviours after TBI. Finally, the expression of DHCR24 increased in TREM2 KO mice after TBI. Interestingly, TREM2 inhibited DHCR24 and upregulated members of the LXR pathway. Moreover, LXR inhibition could partially reverse the effects of TREM2 upregulation on electrophysiological activities. We demonstrate that TREM2 has the potential to alleviate WMI following TBI, possibly through the DHCR24/LXR pathway in microglia.

A Novel Network Pharmacology Strategy Based on the Universal Effectiveness-Common Mechanism of Medical Herbs Uncovers Therapeutic Targets in Traumatic Brain Injury.

Many herbs can promote neurological recovery following traumatic brain injury (TBI). There must lie a shared mechanism behind the common effectiveness. We aimed to explore the key therapeutic targets for TBI based on the common effectiveness of the medicinal plants. The TBI-effective herbs were retrieved from the literature as imputes of network pharmacology. Then, the active ingredients in at least two herbs were screened out as common components. The hub targets of all active compounds were identified through Cytohubba. Next, AutoDock vina was used to rank the common compound-hub target interactions by molecular docking. A highly scored compound-target pair was selected for in vivo validation. We enrolled sixteen TBI-effective medicinal herbs and screened out twenty-one common compounds, such as luteolin. Ten hub targets were recognized according to the topology of the protein-protein interaction network of targets, including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Molecular docking analysis suggested that luteolin could bind strongly to the active pocket of EGFR. Administration of luteolin or the selective EGFR inhibitor AZD3759 to TBI mice promoted the recovery of body weight and neurological function, reduced astrocyte activation and EGFR expression, decreased chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans deposition, and upregulated GAP43 levels in the cortex. The effects were similar to those when treated with the selective EGFR inhibitor. The common effectiveness-based, common target screening strategy suggests that inhibition of EGFR can be an effective therapy for TBI. This strategy can be applied to discover core targets and therapeutic compounds in other diseases.

GSK’872 Improves Prognosis of Traumatic Brain Injury by Switching Receptor-Interacting Serine/Threonine-Protein Kinase 3-dependent Necroptosis to Cysteinyl Aspartate Specific Proteinase-8-Dependent Apoptosis

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important health concern in the society. Previous studies have suggested that necroptosis occurs following TBI. However, the underlying mechanisms and roles of necroptosis are not well understood. In this study, we aimed to assess the role of receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 3 (RIP3)-mediated necroptosis after TBI both in vitro and in vivo. We established a cell-stretching injury and mouse TBI model by applying a cell injury controller (CIC) and controlled cortical impactor (CCI) to evaluate the relationships among necroptosis, apotosis, inflammation, and TBI both in vitro and in vivo. The results revealed that necroptosis mediated by receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIP1), RIP3, and mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) was involved in secondary TBI. Additionally, protein kinase B (Akt), phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and phosphorylated mTOR (p-mTOR) potentially contribute to necroptosis. The inhibition of RIP3 by GSK'872 (a specific inhibitor) blocked necroptosis and reduced the activity of Akt/mTOR, leading to the alleviation of inflammation by reducing the levels of NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3). Moreover, the inhibition of RIP3 by GSK'872 promoted the activity of cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase-8(Caspase-8), an enzyme involved in apoptosis and inflammation. These data demonstrate that RIP3 inhibition could improve the prognosis of TBI, based on the attenuation of inflammation by switching RIP3-dependent necroptosis to Caspase-8-dependent apoptosis.