Trap Days Research Articles

Wild ungulates employ spatio-temporal niche partitioning to coexist with livestock in resource-limited Trans-Himalayan rangelands, India

Understanding interactions between wild ungulates and livestock is critical for the conservation and management of rangelands. Sympatric animals use a diversity of strategies such as differential use of space or time to avoid interspecific interactions, especially competition and conflict. This study investigated the seasonal (summer and winter) spatial and temporal interaction of three wild ungulates; Tibetan argali, kiang, and blue sheep with livestock (sheep and goat) using camera trap data collected between 2020 and 2022 in different seasons (14,340 camera trap days and 234 locations). Blue sheep and livestock show the highest level of temporal overlap in summer and winter as both are diurnal irrespective of the season. The highest spatial overlap is observed between kiang and livestock in summer and winter. In the summer, kiang shows multiple activity peaks throughout the day as well as night i.e. cathemeral activity, possibly a strategy to avoid competition with livestock by using the same space actively and repetitively but for shorter periods. This allows them to access forage and water as needed. A significant avoidance of livestock by argali in terms of space use was observed. Based on our analysis, we argue that avoidance behavior by argali is a survival strategy in response to anthropogenic pressure and hunting in the past. The spatio-temporal coordination at a finer scale facilitates coexistence in our study area, which allows ungulates and livestock to exploit resources more effectively in the study area. The findings of this multi-scale spatio-temporal analysis provide insights into habitat preferences of wild ungulates and livestock and species-specific behaviour to avoid competition. These insights are critical to develop robust strategies and policies to conserve biodiversity while also supporting the livelihood of local communities in a multi-use landscape.

Estimation of mammalian wildlife density by REM method in a Mediterranean forest ecosystem (Pinus brutia) of Türkiye: how human footprint effects mammal community?

BackgroundDetermining the density of mammalian wildlife in an ecosystem is very important for the ecosystem conservation. The aim of this study is to reveal mammalian wildlife density and compare the effect human footprint index (HFI) on the Mediterranean ecosystems. The mammalian wildlife surveys were conducted between August 2013 and December 2013, using 21 camera traps with 2175 camera trap days in a Mediterranean forest ecosystem in İzmir, Türkiye. We used random encounter model (REM) method to estimate densities.ResultsThe population density for 5 mammals were; for red fox 7.89 ind./km2 (± 0.82 SE), wild boar 4.36 ind./km2 (± 0.46 SE), European hare 15.33 ind./km2 (± 03.37 SE), beech marten 0.99 ind./km2 (± 0.10 SE) and golden jackal 0.50 ind./km2 (± 0.05 SE). These results were compared with mammal community which was previously studied in another Mediterranean ecosystem in Muğla, Türkiye, includes caracal and has a lower human footprint index.ConclusionsAccording to results of this study human activity which can be revealed by Human footprint index (HFI) is one of the main parameter on Mediterranean ecosystem and it is effecting the density and occurence of species in mammal community. Both a higher human footprint index and the absence of caracal might cause higher density of red fox and European hare in İzmir, Türkiye. This study also suggests that caracal might be a serious suppressor on red fox which could be explained by competition. Caracal may also control the European hare in Mediterranean forest ecosystem of Anatolia. Thus, decreasing human footprint index and maintaining caracal suppressor effect are crucial for the conservation of the whole Mediterranean ecosystem.

The Activity Patterns and Grouping Characteristics of the Remaining Goitered Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in an Isolated Habitat of Western China.

Wildlife activity patterns, which reveal the daily allocation of time and energy, are crucial for understanding survival pressures, adaptive strategies, and behavioral characteristics in different environments. Among ungulates, grouping behavior is a prevalent adaptive trait that reflects the population structure, mating systems, and life history strategies formed over long-term evolutionary processes. This study aimed to elucidate the daily activity patterns and grouping characteristics of the rare goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in the Helan Mountains of western China from 2022 to 2023 using camera trap monitoring. With a total of 3869 camera days of effective trapping, we recorded 442 independent detections of goitered gazelles. The results revealed the following: (1) Goitered gazelle is primarily active during the day, showing an activity pattern similar to crepuscular animals, with two activity peaks occurring after dawn and before dusk. (2) Daily activity patterns showed both seasonal and sex differences. In the warm season, morning activity peaks occurred earlier, and afternoon peaks occurred later compared to the cold season. The overlap in daily activity patterns between females and males in the warm season was lower than that in the cold season, and this trend persisted throughout the year. (3) The number of times different types of groups were observed varied significantly, with single males and single females accounting for a larger proportion of all observed groups. There was no significant difference in group size across seasons, with groups typically consisting of 1-2 individuals. Our study provides detailed insights into the temporal ecology and population structure of goitered gazelles in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. This information will guide the identification of future conservation priorities and the development of management plans for the reserve.

A survey of nocturnality and risk for savanna chimpanzees at Assirik, Senegal.

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Senegal may use nocturnality to mitigate hyperthermia risk in semi-arid environments but the degree of nocturnality for such chimpanzees also in sympatry with large carnivores remains uncertain. We compared diel activity among chimpanzees and their potential predators at Assirik in Niokolo-Koba National Park and contextualized these findings relative to other unit-groups in savanna landscapes. From 2015-2018, we generated a predator inventory using multi-modal methods and monitored the diel activity of chimpanzees and predators with camera traps [ N = 2092 camera trap (CT) days]. From 2015-2023, we also surveyed for evidence of predation during recce walks. Six potential nonhuman predators occur at Assirik, including lions (Panthera leo), leopards (Panthera pardus), spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), and rock pythons (Python sebae). We documented one suspected case of a predator killing a chimpanzee. Nocturnality comprised 12.7% of CT events for chimpanzees and these events were more concentrated at twilight. Chimpanzees were more active during the day, predators were more active at night, and there was substantial temporal overlap among chimpanzees and potential predators during twilight intervals. Our findings support the hypothesis that savanna chimpanzees in Senegal are active at night in response to the extremely hot environment. We hypothesize that Assirik chimpanzees experience a tension between decreasing hyperthermia and increasing predation risk during nocturnality.

Unveiling the Biodiversity and Conservation Significance of Medog: A Camera-Trapping Survey on Mammals in the Southeastern Tibetan Mountains.

The Medog in southeastern Tibet is home to a diverse range of wild animals. However, research on these mammals' species directories, distribution, and conservation status remains insufficient, despite their crucial role in maintaining ecological balance. The study carried out a camera-trapping survey to assess mammal biodiversity and the significance of mammal protection in their natural habitats in Gedang, Medog. Future directions and application prospects of the study for wildlife conservation in the southeastern Tibetan mountains were also discussed. The survey, spanning from April 2023 to May 2024, with 19,754 camera trap days, revealed 25 mammalian species across five orders and 14 families. Among these, four classified as Endangered, five as Vulnerable, two as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, nine were categorized as Critically Endangered or Endangered on the Red List of China's Vertebrates, and seven were China's national first-class key protected wildlife. The order Carnivora exhibited the highest diversity, comprising 12 species. Furthermore, the study filled the knowledge gap regarding the underrepresentation of Gongshan muntjac Muntiacus gongshanensis in IUCN and provided new insights into the recorded coexistence of the Himalayan red panda Ailurus fulgens and Chinese red panda Ailurus styani along the Yarlung Zangbo River for the first time, and also documented new upper elevation limits for four large to medium-sized species. Regarding the relative abundance indices (RAI) captured by camera traps, the most prevalent species identified was the White-cheeked macaque Macaca leucogenys, followed by the Gongshan muntjac and Himalayan serow Capricornis thar. The monitoring also captured a number of domestic dogs and livestock, as well as human disturbances. These findings underscore the importance of conserving these mammals and emphasize the need for conservation efforts to protect their habitats and reduce human activities that threaten their survival, thereby maintaining the ecological balance of the region. Additionally, the research highlighted Gedang's significance to global conservation efforts for mammalian diversity, providing essential data for effective wildlife conservation strategies.

Collection Efficiency of Fresh Pollen under Different Pollen Trapping Frequencies by Apis mellifera L. Colonies in Mustard

The present experiment was carried out at apiary of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morena and at beekeeper’s apiary in Morena, M.P. during 2022-23 and 2023-24 to evaluate the consumption pattern of different artificial diets by Apis mellifera L. colonies during dearth periods. Front mounted wooden pollen traps were mounted under five different pollen trapping frequencies as treatments, including control and the amount of pollen collection was recorded per colony per day. The results revealed that, colonies with daily trapping had the highest average pollen collection rate (167.45 and 157.34 g/colony/day) and the lowest average pollen collection rate (13.34 and 12.79 g/colony/day) was observed in weekly trapping across the trapping period of both the consecutive years. However, the control group, with no pollen trapping, was observed with no pollen collection. Additionally, the total pollen collection across the trapping frequencies was highest in daily trapping (1.340 and 1.259 kg/colony) and lowest in weekly trapping (0.107 and 0.102 kg/colony) during 2022-23 and 2023-24, respectively. During the trapping weeks, the lowest amount of pollen (17.89 and 20.67 g/colony/day) was collected in 1st week i.e. during 03 – 09 December at the initiation of the mustard flora. However, the highest amount of pollen collection (101.03 g/colony/day pollen) was recorded in 4th week (24 - 31 December, 2022) while during 2023-24 it was recorded highest in 6th week (8 - 14 January) with 99.24 g/colony/day pollen. The correlation analysis showed that the average amount of collected pollen was significantly negative correlated with wind speed.

Large-scale performance assessment of the BG-Counter 2 used with two different mosquito traps

BackgroundMosquitoes are important vectors of pathogens. They are usually collected with CO2-baited traps and subsequently identified by morphology. This procedure is very time-consuming. Automatic counting traps could facilitate timely evaluation of the local risk for mosquito-borne pathogen transmission or decision-making on vector control measures, but the counting accuracy of such devices has rarely been validated in the field.MethodsThe Biogents (BG)-Counter 2 automatically counts mosquitoes by discriminating the size of captured objects directly in the field and transmits the data to a cloud server. To assess the accuracy of this counting device, 27 traps were placed at 19 sampling sites across Germany and used in daily, weekly or bimonthly intervals from April until October 2021. The BG-Counter 2 was attached to a CO2-trap (BG-Pro trap = CO2-Pro) and the same trap was converted to also attract gravid mosquitoes (upside-down BG-Pro trap with a water container beneath = CO2-Pro-gravid). All captured mosquitoes were identified by morphology. The number of females (unfed and gravid), mosquito diversity and the number of identified specimens in relation to the counting data of the BG-Counter were compared between the two trapping devices to evaluate sampling success and counting accuracy.ResultsIn total 26,714 mosquitoes were collected during 854 trap days. The CO2-Pro-gravid trap captured significantly more mosquitoes per trap day for all specimens, gravid females and non-gravid females, while there was no difference in the mosquito diversity. The linear model with the captured mosquitoes as a response and the counted specimens as a predictor explained only a small degree of the variation within the data (R2 = 0.16), but per individual trap the value could reach up to 0.62 (mean R2 = 0.23). The counting accuracy for the daily samples had a significant positive correlation with sample size, resulting in higher accuracy for the CO2-Pro-gravid trap and higher accuracy for sites and sampling months with high mosquito abundance.ConclusionsWhile the accuracy of the BG-Counter 2 is quite low, the device is able to depict mosquito phenology and provide information about local population dynamics.Graphical

Range-wide camera traps reveal potential prey species for Javan leopards

Prey depletion poses a threat to large carnivores worldwide. The Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), the last remaining apex predator on the Indonesian island of Java, is facing numerous threats from human activities including poaching, habitat loss and prey depletion. Despite the fact that the Javan leopard is an adaptable and opportunistic predator capable of surviving in various environments, our understanding of its prey and predator-prey interactions is still limited, which is crucial for their conservation. Using camera trap data collected from four national parks (i.e., Ujung Kulon, Gunung Gede Pangrango, Meru Betiri, Alas Purwo) that represent four distinct terrestrial ecoregions across the island of Java, we investigated the species richness, relative abundance, and spatial-temporal overlap in activity patterns between the Javan leopard and other animals that coexist in the same location. Our analysis of 7461 independent photos, covering 12,983 camera trap days, revealed that areas with the presence of Javan leopards exhibited higher species richness and abundance compared to those without the presence of Javan leopards. In addition, we found that the activities of banteng (Bos javanicus), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Javan deer (Rusa timorensis), Javan mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), junglefowl (Gallus spp.), spangled ebony langur (Trachypithecus auratus), Javan rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and dhole (Cuon alpinus) were highly overlapping with those of Javan leopards in space and time, suggesting that these species are potential candidate prey for Javan leopards. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive investigation of potential prey for the Javan leopard that utilizes camera traps from all four types of terrestrial ecoregions on Java Island. The findings of this study may serve as essential information for the conservation of this critically endangered species.

Influence of Pollen Trapping on Honey Production of Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) High Strength Colony under Mustard Flowering Season

Background: Bee colonies are fed with pollen supplemented diets to sustain them during unfavourable conditions. These pollen loads are collected from foraging bees using pollen traps mounted on colonies. However, intensive trapping may interfere with honey production. Therefore, a need was felt to regulate frequency of trapping to ensure sufficient honey storage in the colonies. Methods: In this field based study, performed under mustard flowering seasons of 2016-17 and 2017-18, traps were mounted on colonies with varying frequencies namely, daily, alternate day, third day, weekly and control under two different mustard flowering locations in Haryana. Honey area and proportion of incoming pollen foragers were recorded from tested colonies. Result: Daily trapping triggered 29% bees for pollen foraging that contributed to considerable reduction in the honey area (-103 cm2). In contrast, colonies with weekly trapping regimes exhibited large honey area (4054 cm2). Among the locations, large honey area was stored in the weekly trapping colonies at Kaul, Haryana than Hisar, Haryana.

First dispersal records of the endangered banteng (Bos javanicus) in Thung Yai Naresuan West Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand.

Banteng (Bos javanicus) is listed as an endangered species because of a global population decline of at least 50% over the last 25 years. The Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM) of Thailand has been identified as a priority site for banteng population recovery, and Huai Kha Keang Wildlife Sanctuary (HKK) is the most important source site for this species within the WEFCOM. We have provided evidence and discussed banteng dispersal from HKK to Thung Yai Naresuan West Wildlife Sanctuary (TYW). We sampled an area of 147 km2 in banteng habitat next to the border between HKK and TYW using camera traps. We divided the sampled area into four grid cells and placed camera traps during January to December 2022. We setup the camera traps near saltlicks and natural water sources, as important resources for banteng, to maximize capture probability. In total, 2835 trap days were obtained. Bantengs were captured in all seasons (RAI = 1.66), especially in dry dipterocarp forest, which contains the ground forage availability for banteng, and the low-slope area with elevation 600-700 m adjacent to the border between HKK and TYW. The results highlighted that banteng, which had never been reported in TYW before, appeared there for the first time. They most likely dispersed from the population source in HKK and settled in a habitat that is considered suitable for them. The habitat management and protection are significant for the future recovery of banteng populations in the TYW and the rest of protected areas in the WEFCOM.

Characterizing the domestic-wild bird interface through camera traps in an area at risk for avian influenza introduction in Northern Italy

Direct or indirect interactions between sympatric wildlife and poultry can lead to interspecies disease transmission. Particularly, avian influenza (AI) is a viral epidemic disease for which the poultry-wild bird interface shapes the risks of new viral introductions into poultry holdings. Given this background, the study hereby presented aimed to identify wild bird species in poultry house surroundings and characterize the spatiotemporal patterns of these visits. Eight camera traps were deployed for a year (January to December 2021) in three commercial chicken layer farms, including free-range and barn-type setups, located in a densely populated poultry area in Northern Italy at high risk for AI introduction via wild birds. Camera traps’ positions were chosen based on wildlife signs identified during preliminary visits to the establishments studied. Various methods, including time series analysis, correspondence analysis, and generalized linear models, were employed to analyze the daily wild bird visits. A total of 1,958 camera trap days yielded 5,978 videos of wild birds from 27 different species and 16 taxonomic families. The animals were predominantly engaged in foraging activities nearby poultry houses. Eurasian magpies (Pica pica), ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and Eurasian collared doves (Streptopelia decaocto) were the most frequent visitors. Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), an AI reservoir species, were observed only in a farm located next to a fishing sport lake. Time series analysis indicated that wild bird visits increased during spring and winter. Farm and camera trap location also influenced visit frequencies. Overall, the results highlighted specific species that could be prioritized for future AI epidemiological surveys. However, further research is required to assess their susceptibility and infectivity to currently circulating AI viruses, essential for identifying novel bridge hosts.

First record of albinism in long-nosed mongoose Xenogale naso documented with camera traps in the Yoko Council Forest, Centre Cameroon

Abstract Color mutations are a common phenomenon in vertebrates. Among these anomalies, albinism is the most common in wild mammals. We deployed 78 camera traps across the Yoko Council Forest (YCF) to inventory medium to large-sized terrestrial mammals and we obtained a total effort of 17,981 operational camera trap days, giving 169 detections of long-nosed mongoose. During this study, we obtained two independent detections of albino long-nosed mongooses (Xenogale naso). To our knowledge, this is the first report of albinism in this taxon.

Efficiency of live trapping protocols to assess small mammal diversity in tropical rainforests of Sri Lanka

Live trapping is used extensively for small mammal studies in both temperate and tropical ecosystems. The effectiveness of such studies is dependent on several factors. This paper attempts to investigate how one of these factors, namely the trapping intensity, affects the assessment of species richness and abundance of small mammals in rainforest ecosystems in southwest Sri Lanka. Eight-day live trapping surveys were conducted in seven selected forests yielding a total of 5600 trap days with a total of 186 individuals belonging to nine species being captured. It was evident that, using 100 traps with a trap density of 140 traps per ha, over 90% of the species recorded from each of the seven forests were captured within the initial four days of live trapping after which the rate of capture of new species sharply declined. The results also show that the more common species were captured sooner than the more rare ones. Considering these trends, a four-day trapping protocol could be recommended to broadly compare small mammal communities between forests or habitat types. The number of individuals captured, on the other hand, probably attracted by the bait, increased as trapping progressed; this very likely leads to overestimation of species abundance. Since such projects in developing countries are subject to budgetary constraints, costs incurred are also addressed.

Camera trap sampling protocols for open landscapes: The value of time‐lapse imagery

AbstractCamera traps (CT) have been used to study a wide diversity of wildlife around the world. However, despite their widespread use, standardized protocols are lacking, potentially leading to reduced efficiency and inhibiting study comparisons, generalizability, and repeatability. While there are general guidelines and considerations researchers should be aware of when designing a CT survey, studies have shown the vital importance of selecting sampling schemes and camera settings tailored to specific characteristics of the wildlife system of interest. For many species and regions, optimal sampling protocols have not been thoroughly evaluated, especially in vast open landscapes. We used CT data on barren‐ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in the open landscape of arctic Alaska as a case study to evaluate and quantify the influence of camera trigger type (i.e., motion detection vs. time‐lapse) and time‐lapse interval on data generation to inform sampling protocols for future CT research in this system or others like it. Comparing camera trigger types, we found 5 min interval time‐lapse generated seven‐times more images containing caribou compared to motion detection. However, the detection rate of motion detection was over 11‐times greater than time‐lapse resulting in more efficient data collection with respect to camera battery life, data storage, and data processing time. Exploring the effect of time‐lapse interval length, we found detections were highly sensitive to interval length with a 30 min interval producing 33.7% fewer images containing caribou and identifying 22.2% fewer trap days containing caribou compared to a 5 min interval. Our results provide insight into effective CT sampling protocols for open landscapes and highlight the importance of critically evaluating and selecting camera settings that account for characteristics of the study system to ensure adequate data is generated efficiently to address study objectives.

Activity patterns of domestic dogs and native terrestrial mammals in the Tapacurá Ecological Station, Brazil

Domestic dogs are a threat to biodiversity. We evaluated the activity patterns of domestic dogs and terrestrial mammals in a patch of Atlantic forest in northeastern Brazil. We expected native mammals to change their temporal pattern of activity in the presence of domestic dogs. We installed 16 camera traps in 2019 (January-March) and 16 cameras in 2021 (February-April), with a total effort effort of 640 trap days. We classified the activity of the species as diurnal, cathemeral, nocturnal and crepuscular. We found 274 records of 11 mammal species and overlapping activity between domestic dogs and terrestrial mammals. Coatis and agoutis were strictly diurnal in both years, while domestic dogs presented a catemanal activity pattern in 2021. Aguties and domestic dogs presented a uniform pattern, but coatis did not. Although our findings suggest a limited influence of domestic dogs on terrestrial mammals, vaccination or sterilization programs should be implemented to avoid an increase in the negative impact of dogs on native fauna.

Control of Musca domestica (House Fly) in Poultry Units using Delta Traps

Background: House fly menace is a major problem in poultry farms and nearby households. Though application of insecticides is one of the major approaches in house fly control, development of insecticide resistance is widely prevalent. Use of house fly traps is an ecofriendly alternate strategy in control of house flies. In the present study, delta traps were used to control house flies in poultry units. Methods: Red acrylic delta traps with two different pellet baits (FMP and FMPB) were placed at ground level in poultry units housing caged layer chicken with a distance of 90 cm between two traps for seven days continuously and trial was replicated six times. Trapped flies were counted, sexed and species identified. Spot cards were used to determine house fly density pre-and post-trapping. Correlation of house fly population with meteorological parameters was assessed. Result: Out of the 80410 flies trapped, 52.74 per cent (42415 flies) and 47.25 per cent (37994 flies) were trapped in FMPB and FMP pellet baited traps, respectively. Daily fly trapping pattern showed variations. Overall trap catches were dominated by female flies. Reduction in spot card count was 36.34 per cent after deployment of traps. Trap catches correlated positively with temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity. Two species Musca domestica domestica and Musca domestica vicina were identified.

Long-Term Stability of Harvest Mouse Population

The Eurasian harvest mouse (Micromys minutus) is a tiny rodent of the Palearctic and Indomalayan regions, with a distinct regional species status in Europe and irregularly varying local numbers. We analysed the population of M. minutus in Lithuania (Northern Europe) based on trapping data from 1975 to 2022 and owl pellet data from 1986 to 2009. Based on both datasets, the proportion of this species in the small mammal community was similar, 1.13% and 0.62%, respectively. The proportions have remained stable across all decades. Relative abundance was 1.19 ± 0.19 individuals per 1000 trap days, stable over the long term and across the country. Irregular fluctuations in abundance were observed in some of the sites surveyed. The highest average RA was recorded in open sedge habitats, meadows and marshes. The absolute highest RA was 88 individuals per 1000 trap days in floodplain meadows after a major flood. Although the negative impact of habitat anthropogenisation has been confirmed, M. minutus does not require special conservation measures in Lithuania.

Holistic monitoring of freshwater and terrestrial vertebrates by camera trapping and environmental DNA

AbstractThe anthropogenic impact on the world's ecosystems is severe and the need for non‐invasive, cost‐effective tools for monitoring and understanding those impacts are therefore urgent. Here, we combine two such methods in a comprehensive multi‐year study; camera trapping (CT) and analysis of environmental DNA (eDNA), in river marginal zones of a temperate, wetland Nature Park in Denmark. CT was performed from 2015 to 2019 for a total of 8778 camera trap days and yielded 24,376 animal observations. The CT observations covered 87 taxa, of which 78 were identified to species level, and 73 were wild native species. For eDNA metabarcoding, a total of 114 freshwater samples were collected from eight sites in all four seasons from 2017 to 2018. The eDNA results yielded a total detection of 80 taxa, of which 74 were identified to species level, and 65 were wild native species. While the number of taxa detected with the two methods were comparable, the species overlap was only 20%. In combination, CT and eDNA monitoring thus yielded a total of 115 wild species (20 fishes, 4 amphibians, one snake, 23 mammals, and 67 birds), representing half of the species found via conventional surveys over the last ca. 20 years (83% of fishes, 68% of mammals, 67% of amphibians, 41% of birds, and 20% of reptiles). Our study demonstrates that a holistic approach combining two non‐invasive methods, CT, and eDNA metabarcoding, has great potential as a cost‐effective biomonitoring tool for vertebrates.

Microhabitat requirements and occupancy of understorey bird forest specialists in Southern Mistbelt Forests of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Monitoring species’ habitat selection and microhabitat requirements is vital for conservation and management, though studies on bird species’ habitat selection at relatively fine scales are often limited. Camera traps are useful techniques for studying bird communities, particularly elusive species that are challenging to document using traditional survey techniques. Here, we installed 184 camera traps during the non-breeding and breeding seasons to study understorey forest-specialist birds’ habitat requirements in 14 selected Southern Mistbelt Forest patches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We conducted foliage profile and forest structure surveys and an inventory of tree species richness to characterise forest microhabitat. Over 7182 trap days, we had 615 detections of ten understorey forest-specialists, most of which were insectivores. We modelled the occupancy of Lemon Doves (Aplopelia larvata), Chorister Robin-chats (Cossypha dichroa), Crested Guineafowls (Guttera pucherani), and Red-necked Spurfowls (Pternistis afer) to determine microhabitat characteristics that influenced detection probability and occupancy. The main microhabitat characteristics influencing forest-specialist understorey birds were tree species richness, leaf litter, and water cover. Forest structural characteristics that influenced the occupancy of the selected understorey forest-specialists were those within 5 m of the forest floor. Microhabitat requirements for the birds were species-specific, with seasonal variation for Lemon Doves. Conservation strategies should maintain undisturbed forest understorey to allow for the persistence of understorey forest-specialist bird species.

Predation of oak acorns by Baird's tapir in one of the last remnants of mountain cloud forest in Southern Mexico

The consumption of fruits and seeds by mammals can have a strong impact on the regeneration of tropical forests. Our knowledge of this biotic interaction has steadily increased recently but it remains fragmentary. This is largely due to most of the studies focusing on a small proportion of the diverse mammals and plants involved in these interactions and to the fact most commonly used methods provide just partial information about the whole seed dispersal/predation process. The use of camera traps has opened the opportunity to greatly improve our knowledge of the intricacies of frugivory and seed predation by increasing the likelihood to record very secretive animal species and providing detailed accounts of their behavior. Based on camera trap data we report acorn consumption of Quercus benthamii and Q. sapotifolia by the threatened Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii). This study was conducted in the largest remnant of Mountain cloud forest in Mexico, located in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve (ETBR) in the state of Chiapas. Despite the fact that ten mammal species were recorded in the focal trees, only two of them (T. bairdii and Sciurus deppei) were documented exhibiting acorn consumption. We obtained 82 videos showing the consumption of Q. benthamii acorns by tapirs (sampling effort = 133 camera trap days, n = 8 trees) with an average of 6.04 ± 3.56 (± sd) minutes spent on this activity. In comparison, we only obtained one video of a tapir consuming Q. sapotifolia acorns (sampling effort = 264 camera trap days, n = 5 trees) during 35 s. Consumption of these Quercus species by tapir was not previously reported. Moreover, our study is the first (to our knowledge) to show video-recorded evidence of the interaction between tapirs and Quercus trees. Due to tapirs' large body size, the consumption of acorns might be an important source of mortality for some Quercus species (e.g., Q. benthamii).