Transoceanic Communication Research Articles

ГЕОПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ТРАНСПОРТНЫХ КОММУНИКАЦИЙ СОВРЕМЕННОЙ РОССИИ

Achieving the state’s geopolitical goals and extending its economic influence assumes its inclusion into modern multimodal corridors, their efficient usage and control, this enabling to restrict economic expansion of countries-competitors, weaken economic dependence on other states and increase its own presence at regional and world markets. The necessity of full-scale use of transit potential due to Russia’s geographical location as a natural transport corridor, connecting European region with Asia-Pacific region, is the main condition for implementation of RF transport strategy. From the viewpoint of geopolitical benefits, an important stage of Russian railways development in the context of world logistics may turn out to be implementation of such important transport and logistics projects as cooperation with China and other Asian countries in laying a Transpolar mainline. The first project assumes creation of a reliable and efficient mechanism of railway traffic between Europe and Asia on the Trans-Siberian railway. A further link in this chain should become established cargo shipping on the Northern sea route, as an important geopolitical benefit for the Russian Federation lies foremost in strengthening of its presence in Northern and Arctic zones. A fight for the Arctic coast is first of all the fight for the most important transoceanic communications - the Northern sea route and Northwest passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific.

Insights into Submarine Geohazards from Breaks in Subsea Telecommunication Cables

The original discovery of active submarine landslides and turbidity currents in the deep ocean was made in the 1950s through analysis of breaks in transoceanic communications cables. Further insights regarding the causes, frequency, and behavior of damaging submarine flows are presented here, based on recent disruptions of modern communications cables in the Strait of Luzon off southern Taiwan. In 2006, the Pingtung earthquake triggered landslides and at least three sediment density flows (a general term covering turbidity currents and similar flows). These flows sped down submarine canyons and into the Manila Trench at 12.7–5.6 m s–1 (45–20 km h–1), resulting in 22 cable breaks. In 2009, the cables were again damaged, this time by extreme river discharge associated with Typhoon Morakot. Two cables were damaged during the main flood when debris-charged river waters dived to the seabed and down Gaoping Canyon. A second, more damaging sediment density flow formed three days later when river levels were near normal and seismic activity was low. It is suggested that this second flow resulted from deposited flood sediment that was remobilized possibly by internal wave activity. Further breaks were reported in 2010 and 2012. While historical cable break databases are incomplete, they imply that since at least 1989, density flows capable of breaking cables have been infrequent, but they increased markedly after the 2006 Pingtung earthquake—a time that coincided with a transition to more extreme rainfall associated with northward migration of typhoon tracks to Taiwan.

From La Meduse to the Titanic: Gericault’s Raft in Journalistic Illustration up to 1912

This essay discusses the practices of journalistic illustration in nineteenth-century weekly illustrated magazines in London: magazines such as the <em>Illustrated London News </em>and the <em>Graphic</em>. It focuses on the way that Géricault’s schema for representing shipwreck survivors in rafts and boats, mostly in the processes of rescue, was a resource for journalistic illustration in London. It concentrates on the period after 1880, ending with a discussion of the presence of ‘The Raft’ in reports of the <em>Titanic</em>’s sinking. The essay considers some of the ways in which Géricault’s schema may have been a resource in the mythopoetic response to the <em>Titanic</em> disaster. The essay discusses the persistence of hand-made illustrations in the period of the ‘domestication’ of the half-tone screen (from the 1890s onwards), which introduced the photographic image (as distinct from hand-drawn or wood-engraved images derived from photographs) into magazine illustration. In doing this it engages with the ways in which the coexistence of (half-tone accounts of) hand-made pictures and of (half-tone accounts of) photographs in the pages of magazines of the <em>ILN</em> genre destabilized the truth-effects of hand-made illustration and threw the relative lack of affective power of the reportorial photograph into relief. It also discusses the implications for journalistic illustration of the difference between the telegram-speed ‘global-village-ization’ of the news community in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and the ‘snail-mail’ speed of transoceanic communication of pictures, until after the end of the First World War. The essay aligns the picture-making logic of journalistic illustration with that of easel painting, to think about both these visual-culture-production milieux in terms of the manipulation of inherited visual resources, on the one hand in the praxis of picture-making, and on the other in pursuit of visible intertextualities so as to make ‘publics’ and to gratify contemporary interpretative communities. To do this the essay looks briefly at some possible sources for Géricault’s pictorial solutions to his representational tasks, both narrative and political, and considers some occurrences of the ‘Medusa’ compositional schema and iconography in the middle decades of the nineteenth century, from the UK and elsewhere, in broadsheet imagery and in magazines and newspapers. It then identifies some of the ways in which journalistic illustrators of the end of the <em>Titanic</em> used Géricault’s schema as a way at once of fabricating and of adding resonance to their supposedly reportorial pictures. The essay shows how ‘authorship’ of magazine illustration was collective and distributed, complicating the interpretation of visible intertextualities. This discussion of issues of interpretation will use the distinction between ‘publics’ and ‘audiences’, and consider the interpretative communities of reader-viewers of magazines of the <em>ILN</em> genre in the period <em>c</em>.1880 to <em>c</em>.1912 in relation to the interpretative and theoretical resources of the twenty-first-century art historian.

What Did Colette Know and When Did She Know it?

February 19, 2011 (11:48 am) E:\CPBR\RUSSJOUR\TYPE3002\russell 30,2 040 red.wpd 1 “Russell and His Obituarists”, Russell 26 (2006): 5–54 (esp. 6–13). 2 Lady Constance Malleson, who was always called by her stage name of Colette, had been in a relationship with Russell since 1916. 3 Telegraph cables laid on the ocean bed allowed news agencies to send transoceanic communications; clearly, they weren’t always speedy. 4 In the Daily News, Daily Herald, Daily Express, Daily Chronicle, Daily Mirror, Daily Graphic, Evening Standard, The Star, Newcastle Daily Journal, Edinburgh Evening News, Glasgow Bulletin, Liverpool Echo, Liverpool Weekly Courier, and Sunday Express. russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies n.s. 30 (winter 2010–11): 149–54 The Bertrand Russell Research Centre, McMaster U. issn 0036-01631; online 1913-8032 WHAT DID COLETTE KNOW AND WHEN DID SHE KNOW IT? Sheila Turcon Ready Division / McMaster U. Library Russell Research Centre / McMaster U. Hamilton, on, Canada l8s 4l6 turcon@mcmaster.ca It has been several years since Kirk Willis’s article appeared in Russell.1 When I Wrst read it, I thought how could Constance Malleson (“Colette O’Niel”2 ) have believed that Russell had died from pneumonia? Willis takes her at her word (p. 8, n.4). I have Wnally decided to delve deeper, building on the evidence that Willis presents on the published reports of Russell’s death. i The reports of Russell’s death Wrst surfaced in Japan on 29 March 1921.3 From there the news spread to the United States where stories appeared in such newspapers as the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin on 21 April. Next the reports began to surface in Britain on 4 May but only as rumours; the British press was far more sceptical than the American. Willis reprints the account from that day’s Manchester Guardian and notes that the rumours appeared elsewhere.4 The last rumour of his death was printed on 8 May. Russell’s brother Frank quashed the rumours with his letter to The Times of 11 May (although the Times had never reported them). He noted that the rumours had “caused much distress” to his brother’s “numerous friends”. Willis prints Frank’s letter in full (p. 12). His denial of his brother’s death was picked February 19, 2011 (11:48 am) E:\CPBR\RUSSJOUR\TYPE3002\russell 30,2 040 red.wpd 150 sheila turcon 5 ra1 710.082740. 6 ra1 710.055420. 7 I.e. either 21 or 24 June (Oxford English Dictionaryz). 8 London: Jonathan Cape, 1931, pp. 154–6. In her unpublished revisions to After Ten Years, she replaced “of a death” with “that B.R. had died in China; I did not know that up by other British papers, including the Pall Mall and Globe, Evening Standard, Daily Express and The Nation. Frank had been contacted in mid-April. On 29 April 1921 he wrote to his brother: The American Associated Press rang me up about ten days ago to ask if it was true that you had died on 29 March in Japan. I told them that I thought it was very improbable Wrst because you wouldn’t do such a thing, secondly because you weren’t in Japan, thirdly because I should have heard if you had, and fourthly because if the news came from America there was a prima facie presumption that it was untrue. (ra1 730) Frank contacted the Chinese Legation who made inquiries for him. Subsequently he was informed that Russell had been ill with pneumonia but was recovering ; at that point Frank wrote his letter to the Times. He had also contacted Ottoline Morrell for information. She later wrote to Russell on 30 May: “We have all been wondering if you were really alive. Your brother … asked me if I had had any news of you or your death—but I could tell him nothing. I only fear you may have been very ill as I imagine there must have been something to give rise to this horrid rumour … especially I feel this as I have not heard from you for some time.”5 There is no evidence to indicate that Frank...

Connecting Atlantic, Indian Ocean, China Seas, and Pacific Migrations, 1830s to 1930s

Only recently have historians begun to study the world's oceans and their role in connecting formerly isolated societies. For a long time oceans have rather been regarded as empty spaces between continents and barriers to communication. The approach to migration has also undergone several changes in recent decades. Discussions have moved away from the traditional historical emphasis that isolates continents and nation states toward broader concepts of social space. The conference Connecting Atlantic, Indian Ocean, China Seas, and Pacific Migrations, 1830s to 1930s that took place December 6-8, 2007, at the German Historical Institute in Washington, DC, organized in cooperation with the Immigration History Research Center of the University of Minnesota, Arizona State University, and the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, aimed at bringing together the new interest in maritime history and the history of migration in order to examine oceanic worlds as systems or networks of migration. The conference program was based on the assumption that transoceanic communication and exchange was a major force of globalization, with the inten tion of broadening perspectives beyond the Atlantic and looking at migrations in different oceanic world regions and on relationships between these migration systems. The conference brought together scholars from all parts of the world and thus offered a true global-history approach from beyond the Atlantic core of knowledge production. Though the century from the 1830s to the 1930s, when the Great Depression and Second World War in Asia and Europe put a halt to much migration, seems to be an adequate periodization for several seas and migration systems, conference participants agreed that global history must be careful not to impose periodiza tions that make sense in some regions but not in others. As Adam McKeown (Columbia University) pointed out in his keynote lecture, historians instead have to look closely at how each flow was shaped by its own specific history, regu latory environment, economic opportunities, and power relations, even when pro cesses and cycles of migration grew increasingly integrated across the globe. Questions of state regulation and the mechanisms of control that influ enced the movements of people were recurrent themes of the conference. Mary Blewett (University of Massachusetts, Lowell) focused on shifts between the 1860s and 1920s in markets, capital investment, acquisition of raw materials, and sites of production in the transatlantic worsted trade, and the preceding and ensuing labor migrations. Showing how the McKinley

The telegraph, co-ordination of tramp shipping, and growth in world trade, 1870-1910

The growth of trade after 1860 has been attributed to declining tariffs, to falling transport costs, and, recently, to monetary arrangements. However, coincident with the rise of trade the second half of the nineteenth century saw the development of the first electric communication network: the telegraph. The first successful trans-oceanic cable was operating in 1865. The telegraph remained the only direct trans-oceanic communication link until into the twentieth century. Little research has been conducted explicitly linking the impact of telegraphs on international shipping and international trade. A panel is used to show that there is a correlation between the diffusion of the telegraph, co-ordination of shipping, and the growth of world trade even controlling for the impact of other well-studied effects. The telegraph reduced the time ships spent in port and allowed ships to travel farther among ports to collect more valuable cargo.

Communication acoustics in Bell Labs

Communication aoustics has been a central theme in Bell Labs research since its inception. Telecommunication serves human information exchange. And, humans favor spoken language as a principal mode. The atmospheric medium typically provides the link between articulation and hearing. Creation, control and detection of sound, and the human’s facility for generation and perception are basic ingredients of telecommunication. Electronics technology of the 1920s ushered in great advances in communication at a distance, a strong economical impetus being to overcome bandwidth limitations of wireline and cable. Early research established criteria for speech transmission with high quality and intelligibility. These insights supported exploration of means for efficient transmission—obtaining the greatest amount of speech information over a given bandwidth. Transoceanic communication was initiated by undersea cables for telegraphy. But these long cables exhibited very limited bandwidth (order of few hundred Hz). The challenge of sending voice across the oceans spawned perhaps the best known speech compression technique of history—the Vocoder, which parametrized the signal for transmission in about 300 Hz bandwidth, one-tenth that required for the typical waveform channel. Quality and intelligibility were grave issues (and they still are). At the same time parametric representation offered possibilities for encryption and privacy inside a traditional voice bandwidth. Confidential conversations between Roosevelt and Churchill during World War II were carried over high-frequency radio by an encrypted vocoder system known as Sigsaly. Major engineering advances in the late 1940s and early 1950s moved telecommunications into a new regime—digital technology. These key advances were at least three: (i) new understanding of time-discrete (sampled) representation of signals, (ii) digital computation (especially binary based), and (iii) evolving capabilities in microelectronics that ultimately provided circuits of enormous complexity with low cost and power. Digital transmission (as exemplified in pulse code modulation—PCM, and its many derivatives) became a telecommunication mainstay, along with switches to control and route information in digital form. Concomitantly, storage means for digital information advanced, providing another impetus for speech compression. More and more, humans saw the need to exchange speech information with machines, as well as with other humans. Human-machine speech communication came to full stride in the early 1990s, and now has expanded to multimodal domains that begin to support enhanced naturalness, using contemporaneous sight, sound and touch signaling. Packet transmission is supplanting circuit switching, and voice and video are commonly being carried by Internet protocol.

Drifting continents

Daedalus has devised a cunning way to check the theory of continental drift. Transoceanic communications cables must be stretching or shrinking fractionally in response to drift, causing changes in their resistance – which it should be possible to measure.

Introduction To "Radio Communication"

The short-wave era in commercial long-distance radio communication began with the revolutionary discovery of the “daylight” wave by Guglielmo Marconi in October 1924, when a series of experiments which had begun in the spring of 1923, systematically culminated in successful daytime transatlantic communication at 32 m of wavelength. Soon after Marconi’s epoch-making discovery, short waves, which in those days were defined as wireless waves below 200 m, began replacing long waves (in the 60 kHz‐150 kHz range, or 5 km‐2 km waves) for transoceanic communications. Short-wave communication with 15 m was soon found to be better than that with 32 m. Short waves became the workhorse of worldwide communications until the late 1960’s, when satellite communications began replacing its functions. Short-wave communication was the main medium with which World War II was conducted. In this reprinted paper (the record of the address Marconi delivered on October 17, 1927, in New York City), Marconi describes the details of this discovery in the context of the contemporary technological state of wireless communications. A short time after Marconi’s 1927 address, Appleton explained the long-distance propagation of the daylight wave through a new mechanism of ionospheric reflection through the “F ” layer that often goes by his name (as opposed to the ionospheric “E” layer, the Heavyside‐Kennelly layer that explained propagation of Marconi’s original transatlantic propagation of “long” waves). Appleton received the Nobel prize in physics in 1947 for the discovery of the ionospheric “F” layer, explaining Marconi’s achievements. The reader is urged to read this reprint of Marconi’s address thoroughly to get a first-hand glimpse of the excitement generated by his pioneering work. II. SHORT WAVES AND THE RADIO AMATEURS The glory of inaugurating the short-wave era in long

Junctures in speech communication

Several junctures in research on speech communication seem salient over the past 50 years. Under the goad of expensive long-distance transmission, and the criticality of voice communication in a world in turmoil, bandwidth compression methods received strong emphasis in the 1940s. Because transoceanic communication was by HF radio, privacy and encryption were also central issues. These incentives resulted in the Channel Vocoder and a variety of offshoots. By the 1960s, digital computers were being deployed widely and sampled-data theory was well established, providing the systems researcher with a new environment for experimentation—one in which concepts could be rapidly simulated and evaluated. Bandwidth compression continued to be a focus, as computer simulation techniques progressed from classical filter emulation to new designs based solely on digital theory. By the 1980s, broadband connectivity (including transoceanic cable) was becoming pervasive and economical enough that emphasis on bandwidth conservation waned. Concomitantly, digital machines were expanding in capability—but were markedly limited by their inability to communicate with human users in natural ways. The focus consequently shifted to human/machine communication—especially by conversational means. As we approach the year 2000, a strong research emphasis remains on human/machine communication—but with expanded aspirations for natural interaction. Computer interfaces with multiple modalities—utilizing sight, sound, and touch in combination—are beginning to serve multiple collaborating users. In the same era, explosive deployment of two technologies—cellular telephony and computer networking—has rejuvenated interest in bandwidth conservation and coding for privacy—with many of the early vocoder concepts evolving to sophisticated digital forms implemented on single-chip processors. As we move toward 2020, a special emphasis is likely to be on multilingual communication. And in this time, continued advances in computing, acoustic signal processing, and language modeling should carry translating telephony far beyond the ‘‘phrase book’’ stage.

Transoceanic communication by means of satellites (classic paper)

The existence of artificial Earth satellites and of very low-noise maser amplifiers makes microwave links using spherical satellites as passive reflectors seem an interesting alternative to cable or tropospheric scatter for broadband transatlantic communication. A satellite in a polar orbit at a height of 3000 mi would be mutually visible from Newfoundland and the Hebrides for 22.0% of the time and would be over 7.25/spl deg/ above the horizon at each point for 17.7% of the time. Out of 24 such satellites, some would be mutually visible over 7.25/spl deg/ above the horizon 99% of the time. With 100-ft diameter spheres, 150-ft diameter antennas, and a noise temperature of 20/spl deg/K, 85 kw at 2000 mc or 9.5 kw at 6000 mc could provide a 5-mc baseband with a 40-dB signal-to-noise ratio. The same system of satellites could be used to provide further communication at other frequencies or over other paths.

Satellite communications

This paper provides an introduction to the classic paper "Transoceanic Communication by Means of Satellites," which was written by J.R. Pierce and R. Kompfner and appeared in the March 1959 issue of the Proceedings of the IRE. This paper also provides a periscopic view of satellite communications development since then. Surprisingly, in some aspect, the fundamental ideas have not changed much after 40 years. Conceptually, most technical development falls within these ideas. Practically, however, technological advances and significant progress has been made in all areas of space segment, ground segment, and launch vehicles. Today, due to its impact and usefulness, satellite communications is no longer the domain of the technologists alone. Instead, it has created industries, established relevant institutions, coordinated regulations and standards, provided employment, and financially benefitted many persons. This paper addresses these issues, which have been indirectly created by the scientists and engineers who developed satellite communications.

Compact electro-optic polarization scramblers for optically amplified lightwave systems

Fast polarization scramblers have become important components in optically amplified transoceanic communication systems to eliminate anisotropic gain saturation (polarization hole burning) in the erbium-doped fiber amplifiers by depolarizing the launched optical carrier. This paper reviews the operation and implementation of compact electro-optic polarization scramblers on x-cut and z-cut lithium niobate. These integrated-optic devices employ low-loss single-mode waveguides and allow polarization modulation at variable frequencies ranging from a few 100 Hz to more than 10 GHz. We describe simple linear phase retarders that depolarize light in a fixed, well-maintained polarization state as well as cascaded multi-stage scramblers that are capable of depolarizing arbitrarily polarized light. These scramblers can be operated over a broad optical bandwidth of more than 40 nm with less than 5% residual degree of polarization and are further wavelength-tunable over more than 100 nm.

Cable Design for Optical Submarine Systems

Transoceanic communication systems using coaxial cables with repeaters have been in use since the 1950's and there is now a very extensive international network. All major manufacturers of such systems are now developing optical cables and repeaters which will provide increased capacity at lower cost. This paper describes some of the aspects of the design requirements of cables suitable for submerged optical communication systems in order to achieve the very high degree of reliability that must be demonstrated for a 25-year service life. Cable designs for both deep-water and hazardous shallow-water areas are considered.

Transoceanic communication by means of satellites

The existence of artificial earth satellites and of very low-noise maser amlifiers makes microwave links using spherical satellites as passive reflectors seem an interesting alternative to cable or tropospheric scatter for broad-band transatlantic communication. A satellite in a polar orbit at a height of 3000 miles would be mutually visible from Newfoudland and the Hebrides for 22.0 per cent of the time and would be over 7.25° above the horizon at each point for 17.7 per cent of the time. Out of 24 such satellites some would be mutually visible over 7.25° above the horizon 99 per cent of the time. With 100-foot diameter spheres, 150-foot diameter antennas, and a noise temperature of 20°K, 85 kw at 2000 mc or 9.5 kw at 6000 mc, could provide a 5-mc base band with a 40-db signal-to-noise ratio. The same system of satellites could be used to provide further communication at other frequecies or over other paths.

Cable design for optical submarine systems

Transoceanic communication systems using coaxial cables with repeaters have been in use since the 1950's and there is now a very extensive international network. All major manufacturers of such systems are now developing optical cables and repeaters which will provide increased capacity at lower cost. This paper describes some of the aspects of the design requirements of cables suitable for submerged optical communication systems in order to achieve the very high degree of reliability that must be demonstrated for a 25-year service life. Cable designs for both deep-water and hazardous shallow-water areas are considered.

Intelsat: facing the problems of success

After 15 years of successful expansion, the International Telecommunication Satellite organisation (Intelsat) has become a dominant force in international communication, handling two-thirds of the world&apos;s transoceanic communication traffic. However, Intelsat&apos;s success has brought it a number of problems, both technological and political

Digital Transmission over Submarine Cables

The problems of transoceanic transmission of large volumes of information have been raised increasingly over the past few years. Lately, the need for transoceanic digital communications has been of interest. This paper discusses the significance of these trends and examines the technical prospects for handling large volumes of digital traffic using submarine cables. Concentrating on transatlantic traffic, an argument is built up for an all-digital cable by the year 1970. Submarine cable technology is reviewed briefly and several approaches to transoceanic digital transmission are discussed, using known and estimated cable technology. A final approach is described in detail using existing repeater and cable technology for the transmission of multilevel digital data at rates in excess of 1.5 mb/s.

The Telstar communications satellite experiment plan

The growing requirements for transoceanic communication indicate the need for a satellite communication system. This paper describes the Telstar experiment plan and objectives. The design of the communications system is described, showing the interrelation between satellite capabilities and ground station requirements. The factors determining the initial orbit and attitude; techniques for predicting satellite position, attitude, and eclipse times; and attitude measurement and control are discussed. Good correlation between predicted and measured satellite attitude is shown. The plan for acquisition and command tracking of the satellite, and a typical operations schedule of the Andover ground station are presented.

Antennas and Transmission Lines

Antennas and transmission lines used in long-distance point-to-point radio communication are described. Long wavelengths (3000 to 23,000 meters) were used exclusively in the early days of transoceanic communication, and are still used for specific services. The design parameters of long-wave transmitting antennas are briefly mentioned. This is followed by a description of some of the directive antennas used for reception of long waves to reduce the effects of atmospherics and interference. The discovery in 1924 that portions of the short-wave spectrum (10 to 100 meters) could be used for long-distance transmission during daylight as well as at night, completely revolutionized longdistance radio communication. The development of arrays and long wire types of antennas for short-wave transmission and reception are described. The radiation of undesired sidelobes from long wire types of antennas is discussed and means which have been used to reduce these side lobes are described. The parameters which enter into the design of open-wire and coaxial transmission lines are briefly presented. Finally, trends which may tend to reduce the extreme congestion of the short-wave spectrum are mentioned.