Waterborne Disease Transmission Research Articles

Monitoring and Assessment of the Quality of Chlorinated Water in Schools

All water destined for human consumption must be subjected to disinfection processes via chlorination with the aim of eliminating the risk of the transmission of waterborne diseases. However, the treatment of water using this method leads to the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs), which are toxic compounds that may be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed by the skin, increasing the risk of carcinogenic and mutagenic processes. High trihalomethane concentrations in water may be directly related to physicochemical properties, such as temperature, pH, hardness, and potentially toxic metal concentrations. In this work, physicochemical characterization was performed and water quality was assessed with regard to the presence of trihalomethanes in 17 samples collected from points before and after storage in reservoirs. Atomic absorption spectroscopy to determine potentially toxic metals and the measurement of physicochemical properties demonstrated that all results were in accordance with the standards established by Brazilian legislation. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to determine levels of trihalomethanes in the water samples (trichloromethane, bromodichloromethane, chlorodibromomethane, and bromoform), which were also in accordance with the limits established by Brazilian legislation. Hierarchical clustering on principal components confirmed changes in the water quality depending on location. This work constitutes a paradigm for future studies on the monitoring of toxic organic compounds in water to avoid health problems in humans and animals.

Sustainable Development Goal-Six (SDG-6) Water and Sanitation, Impact on Nigeria, Assessing the Intersection with Public Health and Globalization: A Systematic Literature Review

Aim and scope: The important developmental encounter in the low-income country such as Nigeria has created challenges to make available and sustain the management of safe water and adequate sanitation for the citizenry. The poor access to portable drinking water, and inadequate sanitation practices poses a huge problems in Nigeria predominantly the public health burden linked with the polluted water and its sources, and poor sanitation practices. In this systematic review, the nature and scale of water availability, contamination and transmission of water borne disease and their intersection with public health in Nigeria were explored. The review further evaluated the effectiveness of global community intervention in addressing the anomalies in relation to the Sustainable Development Goals Six (SDG 6)-water and sanitation, and issues hampering the progress in Nigeria towards the target date of 2030. Methods: I searched through the MEDLINE database to select the research articles associated with water availability, water contamination, water quality, sanitation practices, waterborne disease transmission, water (i.e., WASH-Water Sanitation and Hygiene), public health, portable water and sustainability. An analysis of both observational and interventional studies was undertaken. For each study, content analysis was performed to identify the relevant terms such as portable water availability, WASH, disease transmission, public health related outcomes, and to the keydeductions of the study. Results: Strategic themes arising through the search included that about 66.3 million Nigerians lacks access to safe drinking water with no substantial progress in providing portable water for all in Nigeria. Despites various approach by government and other agencies in ensuring water quality and its safety, waterborne disease remains one of the significant public health challenges. Availability of water and the poor sanitation specifically among the rural dwellers are of great importance, being a vital factor in the spread of waterborne disease. The review revealed the common diseases associated with drinking water, and typhoid with the highest occurrence, others are cholera, dracunculiasi, hepatitis and Filariasi. Awareness, adequate funding, infrastructural development and interventions programme are recommended approach to reduce WASH and public health outcomes. Conclusions: Significant water unavailability and poor sanitation practicescumulate as public health burdens, presenting solid evidence that shown water unavailability and sanitation intersecting with public health. Hence, addressing portable water availability and environmental sanitation has a potential of reducing public health diseases with significant impact on SDG achievement.

Optimal control strategies for water, sanitation, and hygiene in mitigating spread of waterborne diseases

Improving access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) can help to eliminate the root cause of waterborne disease transmission. WASH has the potential to function as a sustained and effective mechanism for controlling enteric diarrheal disease (EDD) over the long term. To address this question, we formulate a mathematical model to study the impact of WASH services on reducing the transmission of waterborne diseases. The model is analyzed using the stability theory of differential equations in order to determine the threshold condition in disease control. We utilize optimal control theory to find the right balance in WASH interventions, ensuring a decrease in waterborne disease over a specific planning period. The total number of EDD cases is minimized when there are specific financial restrictions. To analyze the outcomes, we employed numerical simulations and conducted a sensitivity analysis on different weights in the cost index. Furthermore, we compared the numerical simulations of the optimal solutions and performed multiple regression analyses to gain insights into the impact of control strategies. Our findings reveal that wastewater and sewage treatment (WST) control has the most significant impact. When multiple controls are necessary, WST and drinking water supply (DWS) control provide the most effective combination. These results have significant implications for controlling infectious diseases, especially in developing countries where budgets are typically limited. Implementing these strategies could potentially reduce disease transmission and improve public health outcomes.

Healthy Drinking Water as a Necessity in Developing Countries Like India: A Narrative review.

Water is an indispensable part of human life. This article is an extensive review that focuses on the importance of water to sustain human life, the necessity of healthy, safe drinking water, and the health hazards of drinking untreated and contaminated water. We drink treated water thinking it to be safe without the knowledge that it, too, has harmful effects. Detrimental health effects due to water chlorination are mentioned in this article. The usage of nanoparticles for the treatment of water is an alternative to chlorination, but they are little in use as they are expensive. Transmission of waterborne diseases through drinking water is widespread in a developing country like India. A list of the pathogens contaminating drinking water is present in the review. Pathogens pollute water, and heavy metals and chemicals from industries, pesticides, pharmaceutical compounds, and radioactive waste also taint it. The harmful effects of metal and chemical toxicities on human health are discussed in this review. The government of India has launched several programmes to ensure clean, safe drinking water for all its residents. The study reflects on the treatment given to individuals suffering from waterborne diseases in India. Significant changes in health status in India have been seen recently after the execution of various government programmes to provide safe, healthy drinking water to all its residents.

Knowledge And Awareness On Occurrence/incidence Of Different Diseases (Disease Burden) Among The Rohingya Refugee People: A Cross Sectional Study On Fdmn Community In Rohingya Refugee Settlement, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

Background: The Rohingya refugee crisis is a prominent humanitarian issue that has compelled many Rohingya individuals to vacate their residences in Myanmar and seek asylum in nearby nations, with a special emphasis on Bangladesh. Since the commencement of this crisis, the Rohingya refugees have been residing in densely populated and resource-limited settlements, encountering a multitude of health-related difficulties. The prevalence and control of infections inside refugee populations have emerged as a significant issue for humanitarian organizations and public health professionals. Aim of the study: The aim of this study is to determine the knowledge and awareness on occurrence/incidence of different diseases (disease burden) among the Rohingya Refugee people in Rohingya Refugee settlement, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. Methods: A descriptive and cross-sectional survey on Rohingya people (N = 510) living in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Data was collected via face-to-face interviews, after voluntary consent, using a pretested, language validated questionnaire on knowledge and awareness. The non-probability and purposive sampling methods have been used in this study. Results & Discussion: A total of 510 refugee people were enrolled in this study where maximum participants’ age group was 21-30 years (n=224, 43.9%). Male and female respondents’ participation was nearly equal (male: n=264, 51.8%; female: n=246, 48.2%). About half of the respondents (n=277, 54.3%) were illiterate or did not have any institutional education. Satisfactory ideas on different communicable & non-communicable diseases found. Different respondents replied positively about knowledge on different health issues that are related to different diseases. Here 84% respondents knew about water borne diseases, 81% respondents knew about transmission of water borne diseases and 78% respondents knew about signs-symptoms of water borne diseases. 68% respondents replied A, B complex, C, D, E and K are the examples of vitamins, 24% respondents mentioned about K, Fe, Zn and Cu where only 8% respondents told about Na, I, Ca and electrolyte. 72% respondents replied the correct option regarding water borne diseases like Cholera, Tyohoid, Diarrhea, Dysentary, Giardia as example; 69% respondents told the correct option regarding Mosquito Borne Diseases like Malaria, Dengue, Chikunguniya as example; 39% respondents mentioned the correct option regarding Sexually Transmitted Diseases like Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, HIV, Viral Hepatitis as example; 49% respondents replied the correct option regarding Respiratory Tract Infections like Pneumonia, Influenza, Covid-19, TB as example where 39% respondents gave examples of other communicable diseases which were correct. Again when the respondents were asked about examples of non-communicable diseases, 48% replied about Diabetes, Hypertension, MI, Dyslipidemia, Stroke, Osteoporosis. Conclusion: The respondents also mentioned about common communicable & non-communicable diseases in their particular area or camp, diseases they were suffering from and also prevalence of different communicable and non communicable diseases was observed. Policymakers and healthcare providers can enhance health outcomes and facilitate disease prevention among displaced populations by comprehending the factors that impact disease awareness and behaviors. Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge the limitations of the study and take them into account when interpreting the results.

Bacteriological assessment of pipe-borne, borehole, and well water sources available to students in Nasarawa State University Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

The provision of clean water, microorganisms-free water is crucial in preventing the transmission of waterborne diseases. This study was conducted with the objective of evaluating the bacteriological quality of water sources accessible to students within Nasarawa State University Keffi. Sixteen samples, comprising ten from piped source, three from boreholes, and three from wells, were subjected to bacteriological quality assessment. The total bacterial count was analyzed using the pour plate technique, while the total coliform count and bacteriological index were assessed through the most probable number technique. Among the various water sources examine, pipe-borne water exhibited the lower bacterial contamination with a mean of 0.6×106 CFU/100 mL in contrast to borehole and well water sources, which recorded mean of 1.6×106 and 3.2×106 CFU/100 mL, respectively. Additionally, pipe-borne water demonstrated the lowest mean total coliform count, registering 22 MPN/100 mL. Notably, Notably, the water samples were found to harbor bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacter aerogens, and Citrobacter sp. Alarming findings from this study highlight the unsuitability of most water samples for human consumption, as they fail to meet the quality standards established by the World Health Organization. Consequently, it is necessary to implement measures aimed at safeguarding water sources from contamination and curbing the proliferation of diseases. Furthermore, it is pertinent to prioritize adequate treatment of domestic water sources prior to consumption to ensure public health and well-being.

Quality of water for human consumption in public schools in Maceió, Alagoas

The study evaluated the microbiological quality of water for human consumption in teaching units of the municipal public network in Maceió, Alagoas, and verified the hygienic-sanitary conditions of their water tanks and piping systems. This is an observational and descriptive study, carried out in 20 educational units supplied by artesian wells. Water samples were collected from the artesian well and the unit's kitchen faucet. The water quality was evaluated by the test of total coliforms and E. coli, based on the presence/absence of Colilert substrate, and classified as “acceptable” or “unacceptable”. The hygienic-sanitary conditions of the pipes and tanks were evaluated based on a checklist. In 50% of the teaching units, the water quality was unacceptable. Regarding hygienic-sanitary conditions, 73.7% of the units complied with current legislation with regard to structure, hygiene and coating material. However, in 95.0%, the cleaning of the water tanks had not been carried out as recommended by federal legislation; consequently there was a lack of records of the procedures performed. These schools risk transmission of waterborne and foodborne diseases from the water that is used to prepare beverages and food for the schoolchildren. Therefore, it is important to adopt effective measures to control and monitor water quality in order to correct the situation found in these schools.

Optimisation of biochar filter for handwashing wastewater treatment and potential treated water reuse for handwashing

Portable handwashing facilities help fight the transmission of water-borne diseases. However, in places lacking piped drainage systems, handwashing wastewater (HW) is commonly discarded into the ground. This harms the environment and public health and wastes reusable water. This study optimised the biochar filtration parameters such as particle size (0.5–2 mm), filter depth (15–30 cm) and flow rate (1–2.5 L/h) to remove colour, turbidity, phosphates and E. coli from HW using Response Surface Methodology. Fifteen configurations studied the impact of filtration parameters on pollutant removal. Quadratic models provided the best fit for pollution removal data. Optimal conditions were 1.25 mm particle size, 30 cm filter depth and 1 L/h flow rate, with predicted removals of 97.06, 97.50, 82.67 and 73.06 % for colour, turbidity, phosphates and E. coli, respectively. Biochar filter performance under optimal conditions validated the models. Actual removal efficiencies of 97.63, 99.85, 85.94 and 76.08 % for colour, turbidity, phosphates and E. coli, respectively, aligned closely with predicted values. Treated HW quality complied with several international water quality standards. Optimising biochar filtration is crucial for integrating this technology into portable handwashing facilities with potential water reuse, benefiting communities in developing countries with limited handwashing infrastructure and access to water.

Oral cholera vaccine coverage evaluation survey: Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals and host community in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh.

Cholera remains a significant public health concern in many parts of the world, particularly in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene. Bangladesh and other impoverished nations have been severely affected by cholera outbreaks, especially in areas with a high population density. In order to mitigate the spread of cholera, oral cholera vaccines (OCVs) are recommended as a prophylactic measure. In May 2018, 775,666 of the Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals (FDMN) in the registered and makeshift camps and 103,605 of the residents in the host community received two doses of OCV ShancholTM in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, because the conditions in the area favored the transmission of cholera and other waterborne diseases. This study aimed to assess the coverage of OCV among the FDMN and the host community in Cox's Bazar. In August 2018, we enrolled 4,240 respondents for this study following the "World Health Organization (WHO) Vaccination Coverage Cluster Surveys: Reference Manual (2018)." The coverage survey was conducted with three strata of the population: the host community from the Teknaf Upazila, the registered camp, and the makeshift camp from the Ukhia Upazila. We collected information regarding OCV coverage, demographic characteristics, and knowledge and behaviors of people toward the vaccine. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. According to our study, the overall OCV coverage was 85%, with 68% in the host community, 91% in the registered camp, and 98% in the makeshift camp. The lower coverage in the host community was due to residents unaware of the vaccination campaign, the unavailability of vaccines, and unaware where to go for vaccination. Our findings demonstrate that the OCV campaign in the FDMN camps was successful, reaching over 90% coverage, while coverage in the host community was much lower. In order to make sure that OCV vaccination efforts are reaching the target population and having the desired impact, our study emphasizes the need to inform the target population of when and where to get vaccinated.

Potential risk of plant viruses entering disease cycle in surface water in protected vegetable growing areas of Eastern China.

With the expansion of protected vegetable growing areas (PVGAs), viral plant diseases have become more prevalent, causing severe economic losses to the vegetable production industry in China. At present, researches on plant viruses mainly focus on plants, but there is only a few reports on the species of viruses in surface water from PVGAs. The surface water samples in PVGAs are representative to a certain extent, which has an important reference value for studying the characteristics of plant viruses in surface water. The purpose of this study was to identify the diversity and the possibility of entering disease infection cycle of plant viruses in water samples collected from PVGAs in eastern China. A total of 144 water samples were collected, and eight plant viruses including tobacco mosaic virus (TMV, 8.33%), cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV, 33.33%), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV, 6.94%), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV, 0.69%), tomato masaic virus (ToMV, 3.47%), tomato mottle mosaic virus (ToMMV, 0.69%), tomato chlorosis virus (ToCV, 4.17%), and tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV, 5.56%) were examined using RT-PCR and PCR. The species of viruses in surface water varied greatly by location. CGMMV, TMV, ToCV, ToMV, ToMMV, and TYLCV were identified in Shandong, a northern part of Eastern China, whereas only PMMoV was found in Shanghai, a southern part of Eastern China. After healthy tobacco plants were inoculated with the concentrated solutions of TMV, ToMV, CGMMV, and PMMoV, could cause disease in healthy tobacco, indicating that the plant viruses in the concentrated solution have the infectivity, and the plant viruses in surface water have the possibility of entering the infection cycle of disease. The results will improve the understanding of the potential risks of waterborne disease transmission.

Analysis of a temperature-dependent model for water-borne disease transmission dynamics

Analysis of a temperature-dependent model for water-borne disease transmission dynamics

Role of the World Health Organization in Management of Gastrointestinal Diseases Caused by Contaminated Water in Children in the Middle East: A Review Article

Background: The world health organization (WHO), as the international authority on public health and water quality, directs and monitors global efforts to prevent the transmission of waterborne diseases and advises governments on the development of health-based goals and regulations. Objectives: This review study aims to investigate the management methods, including control, prevention, and treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) diseases in children in the Middle East caused by contaminated water through WHO. Methods: For this purpose, Scopus, Google scholar, PubMed, SID, Irandoc, and up-to-date databases were searched without time limitation. Keywords included contaminated water, pediatric, GI diseases, and WHO. In this study, the full text of various articles in Persian and English was used. After removing duplicate articles and articles that did not fit the topic of the study, 54 articles were finally selected. Results: Based on the findings, the world health organization has reported that diarrhea, polio, hepatitis A, and cholera are the most common GI infectious diseases caused by contaminated water in children in the Middle East. The present reports of waterborne disease represent only a small proportion of the total number of cases of this disease in the population. In some areas, it has been shown that investments in water and wastewater supply by responsible institutions can provide a net economic gain by reducing negative health impacts and healthcare costs. Results The results of this study indicate that most of the diseases caused by contaminated water affect children, due to low ability to observe personal hygiene and the state of the child’s immune system, which often leads to the death of children. Conclusions: The lack of diagnosis and insufficient prevalence of these diseases in some Middle Eastern countries, followed by the lack of attention to the prevention and control of waterborne diseases, threatens the health policies of these countries. International organizations, especially the world health organization and the united nations children’s fund, play a vital role in addressing and controlling this problem.

Moringa oleifera as a sustainable climate-smart solution to nutrition, disease prevention, and water treatment challenges: A review

Diseases such as Covid-19 pose an inescapable challenge to the world. There is an undeniable link between nutrition, water quality, and many diseases. With poverty and recurrent food shortages as an unpleasant fact in Africa, alternative cost-effective, accessible, and affordable therapies can improve health and well-being, and prolong the lives of people especially those with underlying health problems. To lead a healthier life, all people, irrespective of their health condition, need to meet their daily energy, protein, and micronutrient requirements by eating a variety of foods. Maintaining good nutritional status helps to build and support the immune system, allowing the body to fight infection. Clean water is not only needed to provide nourishment, keep the house environment clean, in agriculture and food production, and to take medicines but also for a wide range of other uses such as the prevention and transmission of water-borne diseases (diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid) particularly in infants and HIV-positive mothers who cannot breastfeed their babies for fear of infecting them, etc. A massive effort is needed to cushion the impact of the pandemic, and nutritional care and support should be integral elements of any action taken. An evidence-based response is required to alleviate the overall burden of malnutrition and to reduce the severity and complexity of the impact of Covid-19 and malnutrition have on each other. Good nutrition is important in tackling Covid-19. As the sayings go, ‘’an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’’ and ‘’prevention is better than cure’’. The cultivation and utilization of Moringa is being advocated for as a sustainable solution to the above-mentioned challenges. This review is aimed at showing the potential of the Moringa in terms of cultivation, agroforestry, food fortification for tackling malnutrition, disease prevention and provision of safe-drinking water. • Moringa oleifera is an easy to cultivate climate-smart plant that can improve household food security and nutrition and mitigate the negative effects on climate. • Moringa oleifera has both nutritional and medicinal properties that help to build and support the immune system. • The seeds of Moringa oleifera have effective water treatment properties and thus can play a role in the provision of safe drinking water and prevent water-borne diseases. • Moringa oleifera can alleviate the overall burden of malnutrition and reduce the severity and complexity of the impact of Covid-19.

Investigating the Origin of Mycobacterium chimaera Contamination in Heater-Cooler Units: Integrated Analysis with Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Whole-Genome Sequencing.

Mycobacterium chimaera is ubiquitously spread in the environment, including factory and hospital water systems. Invasive cases of M. chimaera infection have been associated with aerosols produced by the use of heater-cooler units (HCU) during cardiac surgery. The aim of this study was to evaluate for the first time the performance of IR-Biotyper system on a large number of M. chimaera isolates collected from longitudinal environmental HCUs samples and water sources from hospitals located in three Italian provinces. In addition, IR-Biotyper results were compared with whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis, the reference method for molecular epidemiology, to investigate the origin of M. chimaera contamination of HCUs. From November 2018 to May 2021, 417 water samples from 52 HCUs (Stockert 3T, n = 41 and HCU40, n = 11) and 23 hospital taps (used to fill the HCU tanks) were concentrated, decontaminated, and cultured for M. chimaera. Positive cultures (n = 53) were purified by agar plate subcultures and analyzed by IR-Biotyper platform and Ion Torrent sequencing system. IR-Biotyper spectra results were analyzed using a statistical approach of dimensionality reduction by linear discriminant analysis (LDA), generating three separate clusters of M. chimaera, ascribable to each hospital. Furthermore, the only M. chimaera-positive sample from tap water clustered with the isolates from the HCUs of the same hospital, confirming that the plumbing system could represent the source of HCU contamination and, potentially, of patient infection. According to the genome-based phylogenies and following the classification proposed by van Ingen and collaborators in 2017, three distinct M. chimaera groups appear to have contaminated the HCU water systems: subgroups 1.1, 2.1, and branch 2. Most of the strains isolated from HCUs at the same hospital share a highly similar genetic profile. The nonrandom distribution obtained with WGS and IR-Biotyper leads to the hypothesis that M. chimaera subtypes circulating in the local plumbing colonize HCUs through the absolute filter, in addition with the current hypothesis that contamination occurs at the HCU production site. This opens the possibility that other medical equipment, such as endoscope reprocessing device or hemodialysis systems, could be contaminated by M. chimaera. IMPORTANCE Our manuscript focuses on interventions to reduce waterborne disease transmission, improve sanitation, and control infection. Sanitary water can be contaminated by nontuberculous Mycobacteria, including M. chimaera, a causative agent of invasive infections in immunocompromised patients. We found highly similar genetic and phenotypic profiles of M. chimaera isolated from heater-cooler units (HCU) used during surgery to thermo-regulate patients' body temperature, and from the same hospital tap water. These results lead to the hypothesis that M. chimaera subtypes circulating in the local plumbing colonize HCUs through the absolute filter, adding to the current hypothesis that contamination occurs at the HCU production site. In addition, this opens the possibility that other medical equipment using sanitized water, such as endoscope reprocessing devices or hemodialysis systems, could be contaminated by nontuberculous Mycobacteria, suggesting the need for environmental surveillance and associated control measures.

Climate Change Impact on the Coastal Settlement Quality and the Relation with the Attainment of Semarang Healthy City

Climate change affects the increase in air temperature, making the dry season hotter and the humidity decrease; the difficulty of obtaining clean water and high rainfall makes the frequency of tidal waves and floods higher. This situation is placed in Tanjung Mas, a coastal village in Semarang City. Tidal flood worsens the environmental quality of community settlements, coupled with poor water quality, high population density, and unhabitable housing, making the risk of transmission of both water-borne and vector-borne diseases surge. The situation above reflects that achieving healthy city efforts is challenging for the Semarang City government and the community because of climate change. Hence, this study reveals the impact of climate change on the settlement quality that influences the healthy city achievement. This study uses qualitative methods that rely on secondary data from the government agencies’ websites and the internet. The analysis results showed that the quality of settlements in Tanjung Mas has decreased along with climate change. The community, especially the elderly and children, are also increasingly susceptible to exposure to diseases, as indicated by significant cases of diarrhea and pneumonia. Therefore, achieving a healthy city from the settlements and healthy infrastructure indicators is still not optimal.

Water as Source of Salmonella Species Contamination in Jordanian Broiler Farms

Broiler chickens are a major meat product worldwide. Maintaining the health of flocks is essential for poultry farming and it is critical to minimize exposure to waterborne pathogens. This study determined the extent of Salmonella spp. infections and identified sources of waterborne disease transmission at representative Jordanian broiler farms. We investigated 10 broiler farms located in five Jordanian Governorates; Amman, Irbid, Karak, Zarqa, and Madaba. Cloacal swabs were collected from chickens and water samples were collected from farm tanks, broiler house tanks, and drinking apparatus (drinkers) over three rearing cycles. Water was tested for pH and residual free chlorine. Salmonella spp. was isolated from the cloacal and water samples using biochemical methods and confirmed as Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis by PCR. Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis was detected at sampled farms at different percentages and the pathogen was found in 16.6% (15/90) of drinkers and 20% (30/150) of cloacal samples. The total and free residual chlorine concentrations in the water were lower than the recommended levels. The average pH was within the recommended values. This study concluded that S. Enteritidis is prevalent in broiler farms in Jordan. Thus, improved hygienic practices at broiler farms and the establishment of national water quality guidelines are necessary to decrease S. Enteritidis transmission in boiler farmers and thus enhance food safety in Jordan.

Effect of Ultraviolet-C Light-Emitting Diode Treatment on Disinfection of Norovirus in Processing Water for Reuse of Brine Water.

Processes in the food industry that use large amounts of water have been an important cause of waterborne disease outbreaks, as they expose individuals to risks for waterborne disease transmission. Developing technologies to ensure the hygiene and safety of food-processing steps is an urgent concern from an economic perspective. Furthermore, economic benefits can be derived if the processed water can be reused under microbiologically safe conditions. Among the major manufacturing processes in the kimchi industry, the brining process for salted kimchi cabbages requires a considerable amount of brine (approximately 2,000–2,500 l/1,000 kg of raw cabbage). The aim of this study was to establish virucidal conditions with ultraviolet-C light-emitting diodes (UVC LEDs) that can ensure the microbiological safety of brine water samples with various turbidities for reuse after disinfection. For quantitative analysis, first of all, magnetic bead separation (MBS) technique was used to capture and recover the human norovirus (HuNoV) virus particles; propidium monoazide (PMA) combined with RT-qPCR (PMA-RT-qPCR) was subsequently used to selectively detect infectious norovirus. Overall, as the turbidity of the brine water samples increased, the reduction in the HuNoV genogroup II genotype 4 (HuNoV GII.4) levels by UVC LED disinfection decreased. The derived inactivation rate constant (kinac) and inactivation curves (calculated using the log-linear model) were studied as a function of turbidity based on the exponential one-phase inactivation kinetics of HuNoV. Using an impeller system set at 100 rotations/min (rpm) with an eight-nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) sample (the lowest turbidity studied), the kinact based on the levels of viral genomic RNA concentrations was approximately 2.15-fold higher than that observed without rotation (0 rpm). Moreover, the kinact increased 1.69-fold with a 56-NTU sample (the highest turbidity studied) when the impeller system was set at 100 rpm. UVC LED treatment decreased the HuNoV GII.4 population more effectively in conjunction with the impeller system (100 rpm) than without the impeller system. Our novel findings and model provide fundamental and scientific data that may help reuse brine water and ensure its microbiological safety through disinfection. Our study highlights the benefits of UVC LED treatment in successfully eliminating waterborne viruses in a prompt, resistance-reducing, and energy-efficient approach at the laboratory scale, which lays the foundation for future plant-scale studies of UVC LED-disinfection systems.

Optimization of Sanitation Facilities to Support Open Defecation Free (ODF) Programs in Dusun 13 Desa Percut Kecamatan Percut Sei Tuan

Lack of access to proper sanitation is a major risk factor for infectious diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio. The Community-Based Total Sanitation Program in the first pillar of Stop Open Defecation aims to change people's lifestyles by using proper sanitation. However, the program has not run evenly. One of the areas that has not yet received the results of the policy is Dusun 13, Percut Village, Percut Sei Tuan, Deli Serdang Regency, North Sumatra which is a coastal area. This community service was able to provide proper sanitation facilities and socialization of healthy lifestryle to the community especially housewife in this area. The construction of sanitation facilities are two bathrooms with a size of 2 x 1.5 m with closets in each room, a septic tank with a capacity of 15 people basen on Indonesia Standard with number 2398 : 2017, tested the water quality, and installed a water pump. Socialization to implemented healthy lifestyle properly done with 20 participants as housewife in this area. This community service is expected to improve the quality of life, prevent the transmission of waterborne diseases and prevent groundwater contamination

Modeling the health impact of water and sanitation service deficits on waterborne disease transmission

Cholera is a waterborne disease that continues to pose serious public health problems in many developing countries. Increasing water and sanitation coverage is a goal for local authorities in these countries, as it can eliminate one of the root causes of cholera transmission. The SIWDR (susceptible–infected–water–dumpsite–recovered) model is proposed here to evaluate the effects of the improved coverage of water and sanitation services in a community at risk of a cholera outbreak. This paper provides a mathematical study of the dynamics of the water and sanitation (WatSan) deficits and their public health impact in a community. The theoretical analysis of the SIWDR model gave a certain threshold value (known as the basic reproductive number and denoted mathcal{R}_{0}) to stop the transmission of cholera. It was found that the disease-free equilibrium was globally asymptotically stable whenever mathcal{R}_{0} leq 1. The unique endemic equilibrium was globally asymptotically stable whenever mathcal{R}_{0} >1. Sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the relative importance of model parameters to disease transmission and prevention. The numerical simulation results, using realistic parameter values in describing cholera transmission in Haiti, showed that improving the drinking water supply, wastewater and sewage treatment, and solid waste disposal services would be effective strategies for controlling the transmission pathways of this waterborne disease.

Viral infection from drinking water

Water born enteric viruses pose thread to both human and animal life causing a wide range of illness. Ground water is the commonest transmission route for these viruses. About 50% of ground water related outbreaks are attributed to viruses. Viral infections have a long history of association with drinking water supplies. Evidence of water-borne transmission is predominantly based on epidemiological data. Water-borne disease transmission has only in exceptional cases been confirmed by direct detection of viruses in drinking water supplies. Water, a frequent vehicle, may permit their survival, but many environmental factors will have an adverse effect on the viral pollution. Risk evaluation requires identification of these factor and assessment of inactivation rate of infection viruses.