Transmission Of Respiratory Pathogens Research Articles

3D-printed devices for optimized generation of cold atmospheric plasma to improve decontamination of surfaces from respiratory pathogens

Three-dimensional (3D)-printing technology is instrumental in creating devices for biological applications, including the exploitation of cold atmospheric plasma (CAP). CAP, a partially ionized gas that functions at ambient temperatures, serves as a safe, inexpensive, and effective tool for the inactivation of various pathogens on different surfaces. In this study, we compared three different 3D-printed devices with respect to their ability to provide optimized CAP compositions effective against select respiratory viruses (SARS-CoV-2, influenza virus, adenovirus, and rhinovirus) and the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is associated with serious lung diseases. The transmission of respiratory pathogens via surface contamination may pose a serious health threat, thus highlighting the biological importance of the current study. The properties of a prototype 3D-printed CAP-generating device and two optimized versions were characterized by detecting reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) in a gaseous environment via infrared spectroscopy and analyzing the composition of the reactive compounds. The virucidal effects of CAP were examined by determining virus infectivity and particle integrity. The bactericidal effect was documented by viability testing and visualization via transmission electron microscopy. The findings indicate that optimization of the 3D-printed devices for CAP production yielded an environment with relatively high amounts of RONS (O3, N2O, NO2, and H2O2), reducing the exposure time required for inactivation of respiratory pathogens by approximately 50%. In addition to reducing infectivity and viability, CAP treatment led to the destruction of viral nucleic acids and physical damage to bacterial cells. Owing to its flexibility and easy implementation, optimized CAP generated by 3D-printed devices provides an attractive inactivation method adaptable for different biological applications, including surface decontamination from viral and bacterial pathogens.   

Epidemiological changes in respiratory pathogen transmission among children with acute respiratory infections during the COVID-19 pandemic in Kunming, China

BackgroundAcute respiratory infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children. However, studies on the prevalence of respiratory viruses among children with acute respiratory infections in Kunming, China, are lacking. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the epidemiological characteristics of respiratory pathogens among children with acute respiratory infections in Kunming during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.MethodsNasopharyngeal swab samples were collected from 4956 children with acute respiratory infections at Yunnan Provincial First People’s Hospital between January 2020 and December 2022, patients with COVID-19 were excluded from the study. Multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to detect respiratory pathogens.ResultsThe frequency of respiratory pathogens among children was significantly lower in 2020 than in 2021 and 2022. The following pathogens had the highest prevalence rates (in descending order) from 2020 to 2022: HRV > RSV > PIV > ADV > MP; HRV > RSV > HADV > PIV > MP and HRV > Mp > HADV > H3N2 > HMPV. The overall frequency of respiratory pathogens exhibited an inverted U-shape with increasing age among the children. Human bocavirus, human parainfluenza virus, and human respiratory syncytial virus were the dominant respiratory viruses in children aged ≤ 3 years, whereas Mycoplasma pneumoniae was the dominant respiratory pathogen in children aged > 3 years. HRV has the highest prevalence and is the main pathogen of mixed infection. The prevalence of the influenza A virus has decreased significantly, whereas HRSV and Mp are found to be seasonal.ConclusionsOur findings offer an objective evaluation of transmission dynamics and epidemiological shifts in respiratory pathogens during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in Kunming, serving as a basis for informed decision-making, prevention, and treatment strategies.

Indoor Air Quality Assessments in 10 Long-Term Care Facilities during the COVID-19 Pandemic, California, 2021–2023

ObjectivesThis study aimed to assess indoor air quality (IAQ) in long-term care facilities (LTCFs) in California during the COVID-19 pandemic and evaluate their implementation of IAQ best practices described by public health authorities to control respiratory pathogen transmission via inhalation. DesignThis observational study conducted IAQ assessments in a convenience sample of LTCFs to gather qualitative data on the implementation of IAQ best practices. The design included 5 pilot visits to develop a standardized method of data collection and then systematic data collection at 10 facilities. Setting and ParticipantsThe study focused on 10 LTCFs across California, chosen from facilities that responded to flyers advertising free IAQ assessments. Some of the facilities had previously experienced COVID-19 outbreaks affecting residents and staff. MethodsState health department industrial hygienists performed site visits to collect data on each facility's heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system operation, outdoor air introduction, recirculated air filtration, use of portable air cleaners, and directional airflow in isolation areas to evaluate implementation of IAQ best practices in each of these areas. Qualitative data were obtained through visual inspections and interviews with maintenance personnel. ResultsFindings indicated suboptimal implementation of IAQ best practices across the assessed facilities: no facility operated HVAC systems continuously, 40% had all outdoor air dampers open, 20% used MERV-13 or higher rated filters, 20% used portable air cleaners, and 20% performed directional airflow assessment and management for isolating COVID-19 cases. Conclusions and ImplicationsMost LTCFs assessed were not adhering to IAQ best practices, highlighting a significant opportunity for improvement. IAQ best practices described in this study are achievable with existing systems and are critical for reducing virus transmission through the air in LTCFs. The findings underscore the need for more systematic assessments and improvements in IAQ within LTCFs to protect staff and residents.

Investigation of a DNA tagged aerosol tracer method for In Situ evaluation of germicidal UV air cleaner effectiveness

Transmission of respiratory pathogens occurs primarily in indoor settings, interventions to reduce the risk of their transmission include increases in outdoor air introduction, filtration, and ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI). However, validating these interventions is challenging, particularly in actual applications. This study introduces an aerosol tracer system utilizing DNA as tracer molecule, aimed at quantitative characterization of the performance of indoor air cleaning systems. Two DNA tracers, designed one to be relatively UV-resistant and another relatively UV-sensitive, were employed to assess air quality changes related to filtration and ventilation and the contributions of UVGI fixtures in various built environments. We conducted controlled UV exposure experiments of DNA-tagged tracers on foil coupons, aerosolization studies in a test chamber, and in a commercial building conference room. The DNA tracer results provided insights at the point of sampling into the effects of complex airflow dynamics. Additionally, a way to scale the DNA tracer results to MS2 bacteriophage is proposed. Four distinct UV devices challenged with MS2 in a chamber test produced equivalent clean airflow rates of 13–147 CFM. Scaled equivalent clean airflow rates in a commercial building setting using the UV-sensitive tracer varied from 47 percent less to 101 percent more than the chamber results, possibly due to differences in airflow patterns, equipment configuration, and other factors. Our findings provide quantitative understanding of the interaction between UV-sensitive aerosols and the built environment, with implications for environmental monitoring, measuring UVGI fixture impact in field settings, and addressing current technologies limitations for assessing UVGI disinfection efficacy.

New WHO proposed terminology for respiratory pathogen transmission.

New WHO proposed terminology for respiratory pathogen transmission.

In Situ Self-Growth of a ZnO Nanorod Array on Nonwoven Fabrics for Empowering Superhydrophobic and Antibacterial Features

ZnO nanorod nonwoven fabrics (ZNRN) were developed through hydrothermal synthesis to facilitate the prevention of the transmission of respiratory pathogens. The superhydrophobicity and antibacterial properties of ZNRN were improved through the response surface methodology. The synthesized material exhibited significant water repellency, indicated by a water contact angle of 163.9°, and thus demonstrated antibacterial rates of 91.8% for Escherichia coli (E. coli) and 79.75% for Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). This indicated that E. coli with thinner peptidoglycan may be more easily killed than S. aureus. This study identified significant effects of synthesis conditions on the antibacterial effectiveness, with comprehensive multivariate analyses elucidating the underlying correlations. In addition, the ZnO nanorod structure of ZNRN was characterized through SEM and XRD analyses. It endows the properties of superhydrophobicity (thus preventing bacteria from adhering to the ZNRN surface) and antibacterial capacity (thus damaging cells through the puncturing of these nanorods). Consequently, the alignment of two such features is desired to help support the development of personal protective equipment, which assists in avoiding the spread of respiratory infections.

Masks and respirators for prevention of respiratory infections: a state of the science review.

SUMMARYThis narrative review and meta-analysis summarizes a broad evidence base on the benefits-and also the practicalities, disbenefits, harms and personal, sociocultural and environmental impacts-of masks and masking. Our synthesis of evidence from over 100 published reviews and selected primary studies, including re-analyzing contested meta-analyses of key clinical trials, produced seven key findings. First, there is strong and consistent evidence for airborne transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other respiratory pathogens. Second, masks are, if correctly and consistently worn, effective in reducing transmission of respiratory diseases and show a dose-response effect. Third, respirators are significantly more effective than medical or cloth masks. Fourth, mask mandates are, overall, effective in reducing community transmission of respiratory pathogens. Fifth, masks are important sociocultural symbols; non-adherence to masking is sometimes linked to political and ideological beliefs and to widely circulated mis- or disinformation. Sixth, while there is much evidence that masks are not generally harmful to the general population, masking may be relatively contraindicated in individuals with certain medical conditions, who may require exemption. Furthermore, certain groups (notably D/deaf people) are disadvantaged when others are masked. Finally, there are risks to the environment from single-use masks and respirators. We propose an agenda for future research, including improved characterization of the situations in which masking should be recommended or mandated; attention to comfort and acceptability; generalized and disability-focused communication support in settings where masks are worn; and development and testing of novel materials and designs for improved filtration, breathability, and environmental impact.

Applications of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to Respiratory Pathogens and Implications for Uptake in Policy: A State-of-the-Science Review.

Respiratory tract infections are major contributors to the global disease burden. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) holds potential as a rapidly deployable framework to understand respiratory pathogen transmission and inform policy on infection control. The goal of this paper was to evaluate, motivate, and inform further development of the use of QMRA as a rapid tool to understand the transmission of respiratory pathogens and improve the evidence base for infection control policies. We conducted a literature review to identify peer-reviewed studies of complete QMRA frameworks on aerosol inhalation or contact transmission of respiratory pathogens. From each of the identified studies, we extracted and summarized information on the applied exposure model approaches, dose-response models, and parameter values, including risk characterization. Finally, we reviewed linkages between model outcomes and policy. We identified 93 studies conducted in 16 different countries with complete QMRA frameworks for diverse respiratory pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2, Legionella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, influenza, and Bacillus anthracis. Six distinct exposure models were identified across diverse and complex transmission pathways. In 57 studies, exposure model frameworks were informed by their ability to model the efficacy of potential interventions. Among interventions, masking, ventilation, social distancing, and other environmental source controls were commonly assessed. Pathogen concentration, aerosol concentration, and partitioning coefficient were influential exposure parameters as identified by sensitivity analysis. Most (84%, ) studies presented policy-relevant content including a) determining disease burden to call for policy intervention, b) determining risk-based threshold values for regulations, c) informing intervention and control strategies, and d) making recommendations and suggestions for QMRA application in policy. We identified needs to further the development of QMRA frameworks for respiratory pathogens that prioritize appropriate aerosol exposure modeling approaches, consider trade-offs between model validity and complexity, and incorporate research that strengthens confidence in QMRA results. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12695.

SARS-CoV-2 infection and seropositivity among household contacts of laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 in residents of Delhi, India

The transmission of respiratory pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2, is often facilitated through household contact. To better understand the transmission rate of COVID-19 among households and factors that affect viral clearance and seroconversion, a case-ascertained community-based prospective study was conducted between December 2020 and June 2021 on the urban population of the national capital region of India. The study collected nasopharyngeal swabs for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR on the 1st, 7th, 14th, and 28th day, and blood samples for antibody detection on the 1st, 14th, and 28th day from household contacts (HCs) of laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases. The study monitored the demographic data, symptoms, and outcomes of 417 participants, including 99 index cases and 318 contacts, for a period of 28 days. The results of the study showed that SARS-CoV-2 was easily spread within households, with a secondary infection rate of 44.3 %. In fact, almost 70 % of the contacts got infected within 1–2 days of identification of the index case, while 34 % remained asymptomatic. Sero-conversion was found in 35.6 % of the participants while 22.9 % did not produce antibodies after 28 days of infection. The study also revealed that females, spouses, older members, and primary care providers were at higher risk of getting infected in a home setting. However, approximately one-third of individuals in the younger age group managed to avoid infection. The study demonstrated that most infected individuals became RT-PCR negative within two weeks, although viral clearance was delayed in older patients and those with lower cycle threshold values in RT-PCR.

Early mucosal events promote distinct mucosal and systemic antibody responses to live attenuated influenza vaccine

Compared to intramuscular vaccines, nasally administered vaccines have the advantage of inducing local mucosal immune responses that may block infection and interrupt transmission of respiratory pathogens. Live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is effective in preventing influenza in children, but a correlate of protection for LAIV remains unclear. Studying young adult volunteers, we observe that LAIV induces distinct, compartmentalized, antibody responses in the mucosa and blood. Seeking immunologic correlates of these distinct antibody responses we find associations with mucosal IL-33 release in the first 8 hours post-inoculation and divergent CD8+ and circulating T follicular helper (cTfh) T cell responses 7 days post-inoculation. Mucosal antibodies are induced separately from blood antibodies, are associated with distinct immune responses early post-inoculation, and may provide a correlate of protection for mucosal vaccination. This study was registered as NCT04110366 and reports primary (mucosal antibody) and secondary (blood antibody, and nasal viral load and cytokine) endpoint data.

Participant perceptions and experiences of a novel community-based respiratory longitudinal sampling method in Liverpool, UK: A mixed methods feasibility study.

Longitudinal, community-based sampling is important for understanding prevalence and transmission of respiratory pathogens. Using a minimally invasive sampling method, the FAMILY Micro study monitored the oral, nasal and hand microbiota of families for 6 months. Here, we explore participant experiences and opinions. A mixed methods approach was utilised. A quantitative questionnaire was completed after every sampling timepoint to report levels of discomfort and pain, as well as time taken to collect samples. Participants were also invited to discuss their experiences in a qualitative structured exit interview. We received questionnaires from 36 families. Most adults and children >5y experienced no pain (94% and 70%) and little discomfort (73% and 47% no discomfort) regardless of sample type, whereas children ≤5y experienced variable levels of pain and discomfort (48% no pain but 14% hurts even more, whole lot or worst; 38% no discomfort but 33% moderate, severe, or extreme discomfort). The time taken for saliva and hand sampling decreased over the study. We conducted interviews with 24 families. Families found the sampling method straightforward, and adults and children >5y preferred nasal sampling using a synthetic absorptive matrix over nasopharyngeal swabs. It remained challenging for families to fit sampling into their busy schedules. Adequate fridge/freezer space and regular sample pick-ups were found to be important factors for feasibility. Messaging apps proved extremely effective for engaging with participants. Our findings provide key information to inform the design of future studies, specifically that self-sampling at home using minimally invasive procedures is feasible in a family context.

Respiratory particle emission rates from children during speaking

The number of respiratory particles emitted during different respiratory activities is one of the main parameters affecting the airborne transmission of respiratory pathogens. Information on respiratory particle emission rates is mostly available for adults (few studies have investigated adolescents and children) and generally involves a limited number of subjects. In the present paper we attempted to reduce this knowledge gap by conducting an extensive experimental campaign to measure the emission of respiratory particles of more than 400 children aged 6 to 12 years while they pronounced a phonetically balanced word list at two different voice intensity levels (“speaking” and “loudly speaking”). Respiratory particle concentrations, particle distributions, and exhaled air flow rates were measured to estimate the respiratory particle emission rate. Sound pressure levels were also simultaneously measured. We found out that median respiratory particle emission rates for speaking and loudly speaking were 26 particles s−1 (range 7.1–93 particles s−1) and 41 particles s−1 (range 10–146 particles s−1), respectively. Children sex was significant for emission rates, with higher emission rates for males during both speaking and loudly speaking. No effect of age on the emission rates was identified. Concerning particle size distributions, for both respiratory activities, a main mode at approximately 0.6 µm and a second minor mode at < 2 µm were observed, and no differences were found between males and females. This information provides important input parameters in predictive models adopted to estimate the transmission risk of airborne pathogens in indoor spaces.

Anti-influenza Activity of Povidone-Iodine-Integrated Materials.

Personal protective equipment (PPE), including medical masks, should be worn for preventing the transmission of respiratory pathogens via infective droplets and aerosols. In medical masks, the key layer is the filter layer, and the melt-blown nonwoven fabric (NWF) is the most used fabric. However, the NWF filter layer cannot kill or inactivate the pathogens spread via droplets and aerosols. Povidone-iodine (PVP-I) has been used as an antiseptic solution given its potent broad-spectrum activity against pathogens. To develop PPE (e.g., medical masks) with anti-pathogenic activity, we integrated PVP-I into nylon-66 NWF. We then evaluated its antiviral activity against influenza A viruses by examining the viability of Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells after inoculation with the virus strains exposed to the PVP-I-integrated nylon-66 NWF. The PVP-I nylon-66 NWF protected the MDCK cells from viral infection in a PVP-I concentration-dependent manner. Subsequently, we found to integrate PVP-I into nylon-66 and polyurethane materials among various materials. These PVP-I materials were also effective against influenza virus infection, and treatment with PVP-I nylon-66 NWF showed the highest cell survival among all the tested materials. PVP-I showed anti-influenza A virus activity when used in conjunction with PPE materials. Moreover, nylon-66 NWF integrated with PVP-I was found to be the best material to ensure anti-influenza activity. Therefore, PVP-I-integrated masks could have the potential to inhibit respiratory virus infection. Our results provide new information for developing multi-functional PPEs with anti-viral activity by integrating them with PVP-I to prevent the potential transmission of respiratory viruses.

Assessing the impact of architectural and behavioral interventions for controlling indoor COVID-19 infection risk: An agent-based approach

The COVID-19 pandemic changed our lives, forcing us to reconsider our built environment. In some buildings with high traffic flow, infected individuals release viral particles during movement. The complex interactions between humans, building, and viruses make it difficult to predict indoor infection risk by traditional computational fluid dynamics methods. The paper developed a spatially-explicit agent-based model to simulate indoor respiratory pathogen transmission for buildings with frequent movement of people. The social force model simulating pedestrian movement and a simple forcing method simulating indoor airflow were coupled in an agent-based modeling environment. The impact of architectural and behavioral interventions on the indoor infection risk was then compared by simulating a supermarket case. We found that wearing a mask was the most effective single intervention, with all people wearing masks reducing the percentage of infections to 0.08%. Among the combined interventions, the combination of customer control is the most effective and can reduce the percentage of infections to 0.04%. In addition, the extremely strict combination of all the interventions makes the supermarket free of new infections during its 8-hour operation. The approach can help architects, managers, or the government better understand the effect of nonpharmaceutical interventions to reduce the infection risk and improve the level of indoor safety.

Effect of sneeze flow velocity profiles on the respiratory droplets dispersion in a confined space: An experimental and computational fluid dynamics study

In this study, the effects of sneeze velocity profiles, including peak velocity (PV), peak velocity time (PVT), and sneeze duration time (SDT), on the dispersion of respiratory droplets were studied experimentally and numerically. Spatial–temporal datasets of droplet velocity exhaled from several subjects' mouths with different physiological characteristics were obtained by particle image velocimetry. A direct relationship was found between the forced vital capacity and PV, while the subject's body mass index significantly affected the SDT. A transient computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach using the renormalization group k–ε turbulence model in conjunction with the Lagrangian particle tracking was developed and used to simulate sneeze droplet motion characteristics. Both one-way and two-way (humidity) coupling models were used in these simulations. The CFD results showed that the two-way (humidity) coupling model provided better agreement with the data in the turbulent and expanded puff zones than the one-way coupling model. The one-way model led to reasonably accurate results in the fully dispersed and dilute-dispersed droplet phases. The effect of injection duration time and injection angle on PVT was larger than that on PV values, while the effect of initial injection velocity on PV was higher than that on PVT values. In addition, the initial injection velocity and angle significantly affected the maximum spreading distance of droplets dmax,sp. The numerical results obtained from the dilute-dispersed droplet phase were in good agreement with the trajectories of isolated droplets in the experimental data. The findings of this study provide novel insights into the effect of sneeze velocity profiles on dmax,sp, and the sneezer subject physiological effect on the threshold distance for the transmission of respiratory pathogens in a confined space.

Randomized controlled trial assessing intubation time with and without an aerosol biocontainment device

Introduction: The emergence of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic renewed interest in infectious aerosols and methods to reduce risk of airborne respiratory pathogen transmission. This has led to the development of novel aerosol protective devices for which clinical and aerosol protective features have not been fully characterized. The relative efficacy of these devices for use during airway procedures has not been assessed in randomized controlled trials. Materials and Methods: We recruited anesthesiology attendings, residents, and certified registered nurse anesthetists to perform intubations with an aerosol biocontainment device (ABCD). Thirty-seven patients undergoing procedures requiring intubation in the operating room were recruited and randomized (2:1) to intubation with (25) or without (12) the ABCD. Primary endpoints were time to secure the airway and adverse events. Secondary endpoints were a number of intubation attempts, access to the patient and airway equipment through the device ports, user assessment of ABCD function and technical burden, and patient experience in the ABCD. Results: Intubation time with the ABCD (46 s) was not significantly different compared to intubation without the ABCD (37 s; P=0.06). There were 3 adverse events with the ABCD (1 claustrophobia, 2 unanticipated difficult airways) that required device removal for intubation. In general, patients tolerated the device well and ABCD users felt the device functioned as intended but increased the technical burden associated with intubation. Discussion: It is feasible to use an aerosol protective device for intubation. The introduction of novel devices into high acuity airway procedures should be approached with caution and should account for the risk mitigation gained from the device balanced against the increased procedural complexity and potential safety risks associated with restricted access to the airway.

Size-Resolved Elemental Composition of Respiratory Particles in Three Healthy Subjects

The chemical composition of respiratory particles is of interest because the viability of any viruses and bacteria in the particles has been shown to depend on this factor. Using computer controlled scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (CCSEM/EDX), we analyzed the size-resolved chemical composition of greater than 35,000 individual respiratory particles collected from three healthy human subjects, quantitatively at nanometer-scale spatial resolution. The desiccated particles ranged in size from 0.05 to 4.4 μm, and the mode of the size distribution was approximately 0.1 μm. Particles were heterogeneous in composition, with approximately 42% of them containing a carbon atomic percentage greater than 95% and approximately 53% of them containing a Na + P + K + Cl percentage greater than 5%. Based on the particles’ elemental composition, we classified them into five categories: 48%–56% of the total number were carbonaceous, mostly organic; 40%–50% Na-rich salt; 0.3%–0.5% P-rich salt; 0.1–0.8% K-rich salt; and 1%–2.5% mixed salt. The number ratio of Na-rich salt particles to carbonaceous particles increased with increasing particle size; particles larger than approximately 2 μm were dominated by Na-rich salt. Size-dependent differences in the chemical composition of respiratory particles may have important implications for the efficiency of airborne transmission of respiratory pathogens.

Effectiveness of a portable personal air cleaner in reducing the airborne transmission of respiratory pathogens

The airborne transmission in indoor environments represents the main pathway of respiratory pathogens, and most of the indoor environments do not have adequate ventilation to contain the risk of infection. This is particularly relevant for gathering spaces such as restaurants, schools, offices, etc. due to the long exposure times and high crowding levels.In this paper we investigated the effectiveness of a novel patented personal air cleaner in reducing the airborne transmission of respiratory pathogens both in close proximity (considering a typical face-to-face configuration at a conversational distance) and in shared indoor environments despite maintaining distancing (lecture room). The effectiveness of the portable protection device was investigated using complex transient 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) numerical simulations. The mathematical model employed, validated through experimental measurements, is based on a Eulerian-Lagrangian approach, describing the air flow as the continuous phase and infectious respiratory particles as the discrete phase.The CFD analyses revealed that the air cleaner could strongly reduce the inhalation of respiratory pathogens in both the investigated scenarios. The air cleaner effectiveness in the case of a close proximity scenario, expressed as relative reduction of volume of infectious respiratory particles inhaled by the exposed subject, resulted >92%. In the case of use in a shared indoor environment, instead, during a 2-h lesson, the relative reduction of volume concentration of infectious particles in the breathing zone of the exposed subject was >99%.

Back to the future: Redefining "universal precautions" to include masking for all patient encounters.

Despite recent guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) allowing institutions to relax in-facility masking strategies and due to our evolving understanding of respiratory pathogen transmission during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, we propose an updated standard for universal precautions in healthcare settings: permanently including universal masking in routine patient-care interactions. Such a practice prioritizes safety for patients, healthcare providers (HCPs), and visitors.

Design and quantitative evaluation of 'Aerosol Bio-Containment Device (ABCD)' for reducing aerosol exposure during infectious aerosol-generating events.

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic renewed interest in infectious aerosols and reducing risk of airborne respiratory pathogen transmission, prompting development of devices to protect healthcare workers during airway procedures. However, there are no standard methods for assessing the efficacy of particle containment with these protective devices. We designed and built an aerosol bio-containment device (ABCD) to contain and remove aerosol via an external suction system and tested the aerosol containment of the device in an environmental chamber using a novel, quantitative assessment method. The ABCD exhibited a strong ability to control aerosol exposure in experimental and computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulated scenarios with appropriate suction use and maintenance of device seals. Using a log-risk-reduction framework, we assessed device containment efficacy and showed that, when combined with other protective equipment, the ABCD can significantly reduce airborne clinical exposure. We propose this type of quantitative analysis serves as a basis for rating efficacy of aerosol protective enclosures.