Transjunctional Voltage-dependent Gating Research Articles

Connexin 46 and connexin 50 gap junction channel properties are shaped by structural and dynamic features of their N-terminal domains.

Gap junctions formed by different connexins are expressed throughout the body and harbour unique channel properties that have not been fully defined mechanistically. Recent structural studies by cryo-electron microscopy have produced high-resolution models of the related but functionally distinct lens connexins (Cx50 and Cx46) captured in a stable open state, opening the door for structure-function comparison. Here, we conducted comparative molecular dynamics simulation and electrophysiology studies to dissect the isoform-specific differences in Cx46 and Cx50 intercellular channel function. We show that key determinants Cx46 and Cx50 gap junction channel open stability and unitary conductance are shaped by structural and dynamic features of their N-terminal domains, in particular the residue at the 9th position and differences in hydrophobic anchoring sites. The results of this study establish the open state Cx46/50 structural models as archetypes for structure-function studies targeted at elucidating the mechanism of gap junction channels and the molecular basis of disease-causing variants. Connexins form intercellular communication channels, known as gap junctions (GJs), that facilitate diverse physiological roles, from long-range electrical and chemical coupling to coordinating development and nutrient exchange. GJs formed by different connexin isoforms harbour unique channel properties that have not been fully defined mechanistically. Recent structural studies on Cx46 and Cx50 defined a novel and stable open state and implicated the amino-terminal (NT) domain as a major contributor for isoform-specific functional differences between these closely related lens connexins. To better understand these differences, we constructed models corresponding to wildtype Cx50 and Cx46 GJs, NT domain swapped chimeras, and point variants at the 9th residue for comparative molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and electrophysiology studies. All constructs formed functional GJ channels, except the chimeric Cx46-50NT variant, which correlated with an introduced steric clash and increased dynamical behaviour (instability) of the NT domain observed by MD simulation. Single channel conductance correlated well with free-energy landscapes predicted by MD, but resulted in a surprisingly greater degree of effect. Additionally, we observed significant effects on transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj gating) and/or open state dwell times induced by the designed NT domain variants. Together, these studies indicate intra- and inter-subunit interactions involving both hydrophobic and charged residues within the NT domains of Cx46 and Cx50 play important roles in defining GJ open state stability and single channel conductance, and establish the open state Cx46/50 structural models as archetypes for structure-function studies targeted at elucidating GJ channel mechanisms and the molecular basis of cataract-linked connexin variants.

The amino terminal domain plays an important role in transjunctional voltage-dependent gating kinetics of Cx45 gap junctions

Gap junction (GJ) channels formed by Cx45 exist in nodal cells in the heart where the action potential propagation is the slowest. The cellular mechanisms of slow propagation speed (or longer junctional delay) in nodal cells could be a combination of several factors, including lack of voltage-gated sodium channels, smaller cell size, and a lower GJ coupling conductance of Cx45. Compared to other cardiac GJs, Cx45 GJs possess not only the lowest unitary channel conductance, but also the highest extent and the fastest kinetics of the transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj-gating) together with a slow recovery. These unique gating properties could make Cx45 GJs more vulnerable for dynamic uncoupling to a much lower coupling level, especially when junctional delay is lengthened and/or the heart rate is elevated. The molecular mechanisms determining the Vj-gating properties of Cx45 (a connexin belongs to γ group) GJs have not been studied. Previous functional studies on the amino terminal (NT) domain chimeras or point variants of other connexins belong to α or β group showed that their NT domains played an important role in determining their Vj-gating properties. The crystal and cryo-electron microscope structures of homologous connexin GJs showed that the NT domain lines the GJ pore, a position that could serve a role in Vj-sensing and gating. We hypothesize that the residues in the NT domain of Cx45 are important for its Vj-gating properties. Protein sequence alignment of human Cx45 NT domain with the connexins in the α and β groups revealed that the second and the eighth residues in Cx45 are different from most of these connexins. We generated a total of 14 variants on these two residues and studied their ability to form functional GJs and their Vj-gating properties in model cells. Our results revealed an important role of these two residues on fast Vj-gating kinetics and formation of morphological and functional GJ channels. In contrast, no Vj-gating change was observed on a GFP tagged Cx45 at its carboxyl terminus.

Effects of temperature on transjunctional voltage-dependent gating kinetics in Cx45 and Cx40 gap junction channels

Gap junctions (GJs) are intercellular channels directly linking neighbouring cells and are dodecamers of connexins. In the human heart, connexin40 (Cx40), Cx43, and Cx45 are expressed in different regions of the heart forming GJs ensuring rapid propagation of action potentials in the myocardium. Two of these connexins, Cx40 and Cx45, formed functional GJs with prominent transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj-gating), which can be a mechanism to down regulate coupling conductance (Gj). It is not clear the effects of temperature on Vj-gating properties. We expressed Cx40 or Cx45 in N2A cells to study the Vj-gating extent, the kinetics of deactivation, and the recovery time course from deactivation at 22 °C, 28 °C, and 32 °C. Dynamic uncoupling between cell pairs were evaluated at different temperatures, junctional delays, and/or repeating frequencies. Cx40 or Cx45 GJs showed little changes in the extent of Vj-gating, but in both cases with a faster deactivation kinetics at high temperatures. The recovery from deactivation was faster at higher temperatures for Cx45 GJs, but not for Cx40 GJs. Cx45 GJs, but not Cx40 GJs, were dynamically uncoupled when sufficient junctional delays and/or repeating frequency in all tested temperatures. Gap junction specific dynamic uncoupling could play an important role in regulating action potential propagation speed in Cx45 enriched nodal cells in the heart.

Variants with increased negative electrostatic potential in the Cx50 gap junction pore increased unitary channel conductance and magnesium modulation.

Gap junction (GJ) channels are oligomers of connexins forming channels linking neighboring cells. GJs formed by different connexins show distinct unitary channel conductance (γj), transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj-gating) properties, and modulation by intracellular magnesium ([Mg2+]i). The underlying molecular determinants are not fully clear. Previous experimental evidence indicates that residues in the amino terminal (NT) and initial segment of the first extracellular (E1) domain influence the γj, Vj-gating, and/or [Mg2+]i modulation in several GJs. Increasing negatively charged residues in Cx50 (connexin50) E1 (G46D or G46E) increased γj, while increasing positively charged residue (G46K) reduced the γj Sequence alignment of Cx50 and Cx37 in the NT and E1 domains revealed that in Cx50 G8 and V53, positions are negatively charged residues in Cx37 (E8 and E53, respectively). To evaluate these residues together, we generated a triple variant in Cx50, G8E, G46E, and V53E simultaneously to study its γj, Vj-gating properties, and modulation by [Mg2+]i Our data indicate that the triple variant and individual variants G8E, G46E, and V53E significantly increased Cx50 GJ γj without a significant change in the Vj gating. In addition, elevated [Mg2+]i reduced γj in Cx50 and all the variant GJs. These results and our homology structural models suggest that these NT/E1 residues are likely to be pore-lining and the variants increased the negative electrostatic potentials along the GJ pore to facilitate the γj of this cation-preferring GJ channel. Our results indicate that electrostatic properties of the Cx50 GJ pore are important for the γj and the [Mg2+]i modulation.

Functional Characterization of Novel Atrial Fibrillation-Linked GJA5 (Cx40) Mutants.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common form of cardiac arrhythmia. Recently, four novel heterozygous Cx40 mutations—K107R, L223M, Q236H, and I257L—were identified in 4 of 310 unrelated AF patients and a followup genetic analysis of the mutant carriers’ families showed that the mutants were present in all the affected members. To study possible alterations associated with these Cx40 mutants, including their cellular localization and gap junction (GJ) function, we expressed GFP-tagged and untagged mutants in connexin-deficient model cells. All four Cx40 mutants showed clustered localization at cell–cell junctions similar to that observed of wildtype Cx40. However, cell pairs expressing Cx40 Q236H, but not the other individual mutants, displayed a significantly lower GJ coupling conductance (Gj) than wildtype Cx40. Similarly, co-expression of Cx40 Q236H with Cx43 resulted in a significantly lower Gj. Transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj gating) properties were also altered in the GJs formed by Q236H. Reduced GJ function and altered Vj gating may play a role in promoting the Q236H carriers to AF.

The Residues in the First Extracellular Domain Play an Important Role in Transjunctional-Voltage Dependent Gating and Unitary Channel Conductance of Cx50 Gap Junction Channels

Gap junctions (GJ) are intercellular channels that connecting the cytoplasm of neighbor cells. GJ channels formed by Cx50 and Cx36 show drastic disparity in their unitary conductance (γj) and transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj-gating), but the important underlying molecular domains/residues are not clear. Experimental evidence showed that residues in the first extracellular domain (E1) of Cx50 likely line the GJ channel pore and are important factors in determining γj and Vj-gating. We aligned the E1 sequence of Cx50 with that of Cx36 and found 10 different residues (4/10 residues involves a change in charge). We generated a chimera Cx50Cx36E1, in which the E1 of Cx50 was replaced by the E1 of Cx36, and 4 point mutations in E1 of Cx50 (where a charge change occurs, i.e. G46E, D51M, E62N and E68R). Dual patch clamp study on the homotypic GJ channels formed by the chimera or the point mutants in N2A cell pairs indicate that the Cx50Cx36E1 channel showed little change in the Vj-gating properties, but displayed a significantly reduced main single channel conductance (γj). Our studies on the point mutations of Cx50 showed that some of the mutants altered the Vj-gating properties and others changed the γj and/or the probabilities in different conducting states. Our study indicates that Cx50 E1 is an important domain in determining the Vj-gating properties and γj. Charge changes in different residues in the E1 between Cx50 and Cx36 showed different channel properties likely dictated by either their location in the pore structure or the nature of the mutation.

Charge at the 46th residue of connexin 50 is crucial for the gap-junctional unitary conductance and transjunctional voltage-dependent gating.

Gap-junction (GJ) channels are twice the length of most membrane channels, yet they often have large unitary channel conductance (γj). What factors make this possibly the longest channel so efficient in passing ions are not fully clear. Here we studied the lens connexin (Cx) 50 GJs, which display one of the largest γj and the most sensitive transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj gating) among all GJ channels. Introduction of charged residues into a putative pore-lining domain (the first transmembrane and the first extracellular loop border) drastically altered the apparent γj. Specifically, G46D and G46E increased the Cx50 γj from 201 to 256 and 293 pS, respectively and the G46K channel showed an apparent γj of only 20 pS. G46K also drastically altered Vj gating properties in homotypic G46K and heterotypic Cx50/G46K channels, causing an apparent loss of fast Vj-dependent gating transitions and leaving only loop gating transitions at the single channel current records. Both macroscopic and single channel currents of heterotypic Cx50/G46K channels showed a prominent rectification. Our homology structural models indicate that the pore surface electrostatic potentials are a dictating factor in determining the γj. Our data demonstrate, at the whole GJ channel level, a crucial role of the surface charge properties in the first transmembrane/first extracellular border domain in determining the efficiency of ion permeation and the Vj gating of Cx50 and possibly other GJ channels.

The Residues in the First Extracellular Domain Play an Important Role in Transjunctional-Voltage Dependent Gating and Unitary Conductance of Cx50 Gap Junction Channels

The Residues in the First Extracellular Domain Play an Important Role in Transjunctional-Voltage Dependent Gating and Unitary Conductance of Cx50 Gap Junction Channels

Functional roles of the amino terminal domain in determining biophysical properties of Cx50 gap junction channels

Communication through gap junction channels is essential for synchronized and coordinated cellular activities. The gap junction channel pore size, its switch control for opening/closing, and the modulations by chemicals can be different depending on the connexin subtypes that compose the channel. Recent structural and functional studies provide compelling evidence that the amino terminal (NT) domains of several connexins line the pore of gap junction channels and play an important role in single channel conductance (γj) and transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj-gating). This article reviews recent studies conducted on a series of mutations/chimeras in the NT domain of connexin50 (Cx50). Functional examination of the gap junction channels formed by these mutants/chimeras shows the net charge number at the NT domain to be an important factor in γj and in Vj-gating. Furthermore, with an increase in the net negative charge at the NT domain, we observed an increase in the γj as well as changes in the parameters of the Boltzmann fit of the normalized steady-state conductance and Vj relationship. Our data are consistent with a structural model where the NT domain of Cx50 lines the gap junction pore and plays an important role in sensing Vj and in the subsequent conformational changes leading to gating, as well as in limiting the rate of ion permeation.

Aspartic Acid Residue D3 Critically Determines Cx50 Gap Junction Channel Transjunctional Voltage-Dependent Gating and Unitary Conductance

Previous studies have suggested that the aspartic acid residue (D) at the third position is critical in determining the voltage polarity of fast Vj-gating of Cx50 channels. To test whether another negatively charged residue (a glutamic acid residue, E) could fulfill the role of the D3 residue, we generated the mutant Cx50D3E. Vj-dependent gating properties of this mutant channel were characterized by double-patch-clamp recordings in N2A cells. Macroscopically, the D3E substitution reduced the residual conductance (Gmin) to near zero and outwardly shifted the half-inactivation voltage (V0), which is a result of both a reduced aggregate gating charge (z) and a reduced free-energy difference between the open and closed states. Single Cx50D3E gap junction channels showed reduced unitary conductance (γj) of the main open state, reduced open dwell time at ±40 mV, and absence of a long-lived substate. In contrast, a G8E substitution tested to compare the effects of the E residue at the third and eighth positions did not modify the Vj-dependent gating profile or γj. In summary, this study is the first that we know of to suggest that the D3 residue plays an essential role, in addition to serving as a negative-charge provider, as a critical determinant of the Vj-dependent gating sensitivity, open-closed stability, and unitary conductance of Cx50 gap junction channels.

Novel Transjunctional-Voltage Dependent Gating and Unitary Conductance Properties of the Heterotypic Gap Junction Channels Formed by Cx50 and Cx50 Chimera/Mutant

Gap junctions (GJ) are intercellular channels that connecting the cytoplasm of two cells. GJ channel conductance (Gj) is regulated by transjunctional voltage (Vj-gating), which is the voltage difference between the interiors of the cell pair. Previously, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the Cx50 GJ channel Vj-gating, domain swapping (e.g. replacing the amino-terminus of Cx50 by that of Cx36, named Cx50-Cx36N) and site-directed mutagenesis (e.g. Cx50N9R), along with dual whole-cell voltage-clamp experiments were carried out in neuroblastoma cells (N2A) (Xin et al., 2010). Here we performed studies on cell pairs forming heterotypic GJ channels between Cx50 and Cx50 chimera/mutant at macroscopic, as well as single channel level. Cx50/Cx50Cx36N heterotypic channels showed asymmetrical Vj-gating properties with respect to Vj = 0. The macroscopic Gj showed substantial reduction (by 82% at Vj = 100mV) when depolarizing Cx50-expressing cell, whereas a moderate reduction (by 61% at Vj = −100mV) when hyperpolarizing Cx50-expressing cell. This observation is in agreement with previous finding that Cx50 hemichannel gates when the cell is depolarized. Single Cx50/Cx50Cx36N heterotypic channel displayed a main conductance of ∼120pS at low Vj pulses (± 20mV), but the conductance rectified with increasing Vj pulses. Cx50/Cx50N9R heterotypic GJ channel also exhibited asymmetrical Vj-gating properties at macroscopic level, and single channel recordings indicated a main conductance of ∼150pS at Vj = 20mV. These results demonstrate that the Vj-gating properties and unitary conductance of Cx50 hemichannels were evidently modified when docking with Cx50-Cx36N or Cx50N9R mutants. These novel properties of heterotypic channels provide insights into the Vj-gating mechanisms of Cx50 GJ channels.

The Role of Amino Terminus of Mouse Cx50 in Determining Transjunctional Voltage-Dependent Gating and Unitary Conductance

Amino-terminus and carboxyl-terminus of connexins have been proposed to be responsible for the transjunctional voltage-dependent gating ( V j-gating) and the unitary gap junction channel conductance ( γ j). To better understand the molecular structure(s) determining the V j-gating properties and the γ j of Cx50, we have replaced part of the amino-terminus of mCx50 by the corresponding domain of mCx36 to engineer a chimera Cx50-Cx36N, and attached GFP at the carboxyl-terminus of mCx50 to construct Cx50-GFP. The dual whole-cell patch-clamp technique was used to test the resulting gap junction channel properties in N2A cells. The Cx50-Cx36N gap junction channel lowered the sensitivity of steady-state junctional conductance to V j ( G j/ V j relationship), slowed V j-gating kinetics, and reduced γ j as compared to Cx50 channel. Cx50-GFP gap junction channel showed similar V j-gating properties and γ j to Cx50 channel. We further characterized a mutation, Cx50N9R, where the Asn (N) at the ninth position of Cx50 was replaced by the corresponding Arg (R) at Cx36. The G j/ V j relationship of Cx50N9R channel was significantly changed; most strikingly, the macroscopic residual conductance ( G min) was near zero. Moreover, the single Cx50N9R channel only displayed one open state ( γ j = 132 ± 4 pS), and no substate could be detected. Our data suggest that the NT of Cx50 is critical for both the V j-gating and the γ j, and the introduction of a positively charged Arg at the ninth position reduced the G min with a correlated disappearance of the substate at the single channel level.

Block of Specific Gap Junction Channel Subtypes by 2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl Borate (2-APB)

2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), an inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor modulator, inhibits capacitive current transients measured in normal rat kidney and human embryonic kidney 293 cells, an indication of blocking gap junction channels between these cells. Here, we used the dual whole-cell patch-clamp method to study the actions of 2-APB on gap junction channels formed by selected connexins expressed in a communication-deficient neuroblastoma cell line (N2A). 2-APB dose-dependently and reversibly blocked junctional currents of connexin (Cx) 50 gap junction channels. The concentration-inhibition curve of 2-APB on the junctional current indicated an IC(50) of 3.7 microM, lower than that of most gap junction inhibitors. At a concentration of 20 microM, 2-APB also significantly blocked junctional conductance in cell pairs coupled by Cx26, Cx30, Cx36, Cx40, and Cx45 but did not appreciably affect coupling in cell pairs expressing Cx32, Cx43, and Cx46. Although concentration inhibition curves of 2-APB on Cx36 channels were similar to Cx50 (Cx36; IC(50), 3.0 microM), IC(50) values were higher for Cx43 (51.6 microM), Cx45 (18.1 microM), and Cx46 (29.4 microM). The blocking action of 2-APB did not substantially alter transjunctional voltage-dependent gating of Cx50 gap junction channels, and recordings from poorly coupled pairs of Cx50-transfected N2A cells indicated that 2-APB reduced gap junction channel open probability without changing the main state single-channel conductance. The differential efficacy of block by 2-APB of gap junction channels formed by different connexins may provide a useful tool that could be exploited in gap junction research to selectively block certain gap junction channel subtypes.