Transit-oriented Development Areas Research Articles

Comprehending particulate matter dynamics in transit-oriented developments: Traffic as a generator and design as a captivator

In Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), the close integration of residential structures with community activities and traffic heightens residents' exposure to traffic-related pollutants. Despite traffic being a primary source of particulate matter (PM), the compact design of TODs, together with the impact of urban heat island (UHI), increases the likelihood of trapping emitted PM from traffic, leading to heightened exposure of TOD residents to PM. Although PM originates from two distinct sources in road traffic, exhaust and non-exhaust emissions (NEE), current legislation addressing traffic-related PM from non-exhaust emissions sources remains limited. This paper focuses on two TOD typologies in Manchester City—Manchester Piccadilly and East Didsbury—to understand the roles of TOD traffic as a PM generator and TOD place design as a PM container and trapper. The investigation aims to establish correlations between street design canyon ratios, vehicular Speed, and PM10/PM2.5, providing design guidance and effective traffic management strategies to control PM emissions within TODs. Through mapping the canyon ratio and utilising the Breezometer API for PM monitoring, the paper revealed elevated PM levels in both TOD areas, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, particularly for PM2.5. Correlation analysis between canyon configuration and PM2.5/PM10 highlighted the importance of considering building heights and avoiding the creation of deep canyons in TOD design to minimise the limited dispersion of PM. Leveraging UK road statistics and the PTV Group API for vehicle speed calculations, the paper studied the average speeds on the TOD roads concerning PM. Contrary to conventional assumption, the correlation analyses have revealed a noteworthy association shift between vehicular speed and PM concentrations. A positive correlation existed between speed increase and PM increases on arterial roads. However, a negative correlation emerged on main, collector, and local streets, indicating that PM levels rise for both PM10 and PM2.5 as Speed decreases. These findings challenge the traditional assumption that higher Speed leads to increased emissions, highlighting the potential impact of NEE on PM concentrations. This paper calls for thorough design considerations and traffic management strategies in TOD, especially in dense areas, considering building height, optimising traffic flow, and enhancing compromised air quality associated with vehicular emissions.

TOD effects on travel behavior: A synthesis of evidence from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

The impacts of transit-oriented development (TOD) on travel behavior have been extensively studied, with a predominant focus on cross-sectional analyses that provide a static evaluation at a specific point in time by comparing TODs and non-TODs. Longitudinal assessments that capture changes in behavior over time remain relatively uncommon, and the literature tends to overlook differences in evaluating TOD effects across cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Additionally, the role of trip purpose as a significant but unexplored variable influencing the degree of TOD effects is often disregarded. To address these gaps, this systematic review examines 48 quantitative studies, comparing the effects of TOD on travel behavior from cross-sectional and longitudinal perspectives, restructuring indicators of effects into transit use, non-motorized travel, vehicle dependence, and vehicle ownership, and differentiating the effects by trip purpose. A metric has been introduced to quantitatively assess the impact of TOD on travel behavior. The pooled results indicate that private vehicle usage remains high in TOD areas, particularly for non-commuting trips, and that the longitudinal effects of TOD are limited and potentially influenced by individual travel attitudes, residential self-selection, and long-term travel habit change. Furthermore, the methodological differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies may lead to divergent conclusions regarding the effects of TOD on travel behavior. Our analysis sheds light on the importance of carefully selecting an appropriate method for a given research question to maximize the accuracy and relevance of the findings. Combining TOD and shared mobility can create a more efficient multi-model transport network that meets the diverse needs of city residents and improves accessibility for all. Overall, this review provides new insights into the impacts of TOD on travel behavior and supports the potential for a paradigm shift toward multimodal transport through the integration of TOD and shared mobility.

Price Model for Transit-Oriented Developments in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract The idea of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) was to foster urban development around railway networks and has been strategically built and applied since the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Previous studies reported positive, negative, or irrelevant impact of TOD on prices of surrounding real estate. The study aims to evaluate the impact of TOD on property prices in Kuala Lumpur. It utilizes secondary data obtained from the National Property Information Centre (NAPIC), Malaysia, after data cleaning, Nine Thousand Five Hundred and Forty-Nine (9549) Housing Transactions between the periods 2009 and 2018 were used. The research design was quantitative, and the Hedonic Price Model (log-log model) was used for data analysis. The model revealed a multiple correlation coefficient (R) of 0.891 and an adjusted R2 value of 0.794, indicating that 79.4% of the house price variation is explained by the model. The F value of 996.921, which is statistically significant, indicates that the predictors significantly combine to predict the price of TOD areas in Kuala Lumpur. The coefficient for LnTrainsta is 0.056, indicating that there was a positive relationship between residential house prices and TOD in Kuala Lumpur; this explains that house prices increase by 5.6% for every 100 meter closer to the rail transit station.

An Overview of TOD Level Assessment Around Rail Transit Stations

AbstractBy integrating land use and transportation systems, transit-oriented development (TOD) focuses on transit and land development, development potential, and the balance between transportation and land use. The TOD level assessment not only helps optimize existing TODs but also guides TOD planning. Based on previous literature, methods for assessing TOD around rail transit stations can be roughly divided into three categories: TOD index, the node-place model, and the data envelopment analysis (DEA) model. The TOD index aggregates indicators from different dimensions into a single value for evaluation. The node-place model emphasizes transportation, land use, and the balance between them, as well as expansion factors. And the DEA model is suitable for situations without input indicator weights or consideration of different units of measurement. TOD indicators are the basis of the evaluation, and in both the TOD index and node-place models, indicator weights are mostly determined by using subjective methods. Furthermore, a limited number of studies to date have pre-evaluated the implementation of TOD at rail stations under construction or in planning. This paper aims to assess the level of TOD areas at the rail transit station level, which can help in constructing the evaluation index system, selecting TOD stations, and optimizing them.

Rent growth near rail stations after the Great Recession

This study provides an incisive analysis of U.S. rail station area rent trends from 2012 to 2016, post-Great Recession. Utilizing Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Hierarchical Spatial Autoregressive (HSAR), and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) models, it uncovers complex interplays between rent changes and socioeconomic, as well as built environment factors. Key findings reveal that increased rents are associated with walkability, higher housing density, and predominantly White neighborhoods. Conversely, rent decreases correlate with diverse land use, higher Black population percentages, and locations further from rail stations or business districts. These results are critical for understanding rent dynamics in transit-oriented development areas, impacting diverse housing market sectors, including workforce and affordable housing. The study’s regional analysis highlights the need for geographically tailored approaches. This research informs policy on housing development and affordability, aiming to mitigate displacement risks for low-income, transit-dependent communities in gentrifying urban areas.

Accessibility and Land Use Effect of Residential Area with Different TOD Typology to Value Creation

TOD (Transit Oriented Development) is the planning design focusing on integrated transportation and land use in an area with certain radii. There are many transits node which is being designed as TOD, which varies into many typologies. Indication of TOD measurement from TOD ideal, can be measure from accessibility factor and land use factor. There is an indication that each TOD area will give different output (value creation) related to accessibility and land use function. Many studies states about the TOD in different city. where this paper will analyse many areas within the same city. The method is analysing the area into TOD index using AHP, then measuring the value creation with summation of real land and building priceThen analyse the correlation between TOD index and value creation. The study case locations is in Lebak Bulus, Dukuh Atas and Kelapa Gading. The identification of value creation will be useful as an input to the urban planners or policy makers for designing more targeted strategies. The discoveries made in comparative context differ from those made in prior studies. This paper is thus believed to make a new contribution to the existing TOD categorized with additional input related to value creation inside.

A Pilot Study on the Environmental Noise of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Projects in Chongqing, China

Noise is still a significant problem in urban areas that requires attention. Within the past ten years, urban development has moved to the TOD concept, mainly a mixed-use, high-density, and compact public transportation-oriented area with commercial and residential areas. Due to more functions in the area, the noise is expected to be higher. Despite this, research on environmental noise in the TOD area is still limited. This study will investigate the environmental noise in the outdoor areas of the TOD projects in Chongqing, China, namely U Cheng Paradise Walk and Gaoxin Paradise Walk. This study used a questionnaire as the preliminary study and field measurement to know the existing conditions. Based on the questionnaire survey and sound level measurement, the TOD projects are relatively noisy in the 65-68 dBA range. This result exceeds the noise limit of 60 dBA the Chinese government gave in GB 3096-2008 for mixed-use areas. Noise barrier installation and additional natural sounds can be two of several solutions to improve the existing sound condition in the TOD projects. Further research related to the sound environment of the TOD projects is needed to improve the sound environment quality. Keywords: environmental noise, transit oriented development, outdoor areas, noise limit

Land Readjustment Model for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Projects: Generating Optimal Financial Benefits

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) projects are increasingly recognized as vital components of sustainable urban planning, aiming to create compact, walkable, and mixed-use communities centered around high-quality public transportation systems. However, implementing TOD projects poses significant challenges, especially in land acquisition and redistribution. This research addresses these issues in the context of the MRT Jakarta project and proposes a land readjustment approach as a potential solution. The study combined qualitative and quantitative methods to compare existing and ideal land use in the TOD area and benchmark successful TOD models from different countries. A comprehensive financial analysis was performed to assess the potential financial impacts of the proposed model. The analysis reveals differences between the existing land use in the Fatmawati TOD area and the ideal TOD model, suggesting the need for adjustments to achieve better land use diversity and economic vibrancy. The financial analysis demonstrates positive feasibility for the TOD project, surpassing the minimum attractive rate of return (MARR) threshold. However, the potential value of the reserved area covers only 16% of the total land readjustment (LR) costs, indicating the necessity for further measures to enhance financial feasibility. The study proposes leveraging existing apartment buildings as temporary relocation sites, optimizing resources, and increasing overall financial viability to address substantial relocation costs. Exploring different property redistribution scenarios reveals the importance of balancing landowners' benefits with the developer's financial feasibility for a successful TOD project. Overall, this research provides valuable insights and a comprehensive framework for implementing thriving and sustainable transit-oriented communities in Jakarta. Further research and collaboration among stakeholders are essential to refine the proposed model and ensure successful TOD project implementation in the future. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-10-012 Full Text: PDF

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) in São Paulo: spatial analysis shows advances, but not sufficient social inclusion

ABSTRACT Large contemporary cities demand complex solutions that integrate and territorialize different public policies based on evidence data. In São Paulo, Transit Oriented Development (TOD) has been used as an integrated urban and transport planning tool to promote a more sustainable and inclusive development of the city since the last City Master Plan (2014), approved after much resistance from the sector real estate. After almost a decade of implementation, spatial research reveals a desirable urban density, with a significant increase in the number of real estate projects built and a reduction in the size of housing units in these areas. However, low-income households have not been sufficiently included in the growth of TOD areas due to rising property prices. We argue that in cities with high social inequality, such as São Paulo, TOD guidelines should be adjusted based on specific socio-spatial and legal contexts to promote more inclusive and sustainable development.

Major Paths Changes In 2013-2022 To Walkability (Case Study: Dukuh Atas TOD)

Development area with the concept of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) occurs so rapidly in big cities, which aims to create an integrated transportation system and is supported by the surrounding area. TOD area must have good road access for vehicles and space for pedestrians. Dukuh Atas TOD is one of the transit-oriented areas planned to be the largest TOD area in Jakarta so that developments are felt every year, including visuals and the road traffic system and pedestrian space. This research is using qualitative method by answering specific and actual variables. Time series analysis to see changes every year combined with figure-ground analysis in mapping the location of changes that occur and will be described. The research results will produce an overview of road changes in the study period and knowledge of road construction and pedestrian space suitability based on predetermined standards. Visual changes, traffic systems, and pedestrian space will be the variables of this study is needed to see applicable standards, or any changes that are inappropriate that planning is needed to align with the function of the road as a connecting and as social activities in the area around Dukuh Atas TOD.

Do Residents Living in Transit-Oriented Development Station Catchment Areas Travel More Sustainably? The Impacts of Life Events

Transit-oriented development (TOD) is an urban designed model aimed at attracting more sustainable travellers. However, not all TOD projects succeed in maintaining a high rate of sustainable travel behaviour. To examine the impacts of TOD on residents’ travel behaviour, this paper applies binary logistic regression to analyse survey data for 1,298 residents living in the TOD areas in Hangzhou collected in 2020. The results show that socioeconomic characteristics, built environment factors, and travel attitudes play important roles in influencing their travel mode choices. Furthermore, the number of children in households and higher levels of car ownership significantly influence residents’ sustainable travel behaviours. However, it appears that only a limited number of factors can convince car users to shift to sustainable modes of travel, such as their workplace being accessible by metro and attitudes towards changes in accessibility. This research study contributes to the existing literature in terms of enhancing the understanding of travel mode choice behaviours, particularly with regard to people who live near public transport infrastructure, as well as formulating evidence-based TOD policies to achieve more sustainable transport systems.

PERMEABILITY FACTORS OF OFFICE BLOCK PEDESTRIAN ACCESS AT TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT AREA - KARET BENDUNGAN HILIR

The development of public transportation in big cities in general, and Jakarta in particular, has set new trends in regional development by referring to the concept of Transit Oriented Development (TOD). Some superblock area development, bundled as a TOD area ignores several principles, especially pedestrian-friendly related values. Limited regulations and inconsistencies in understanding the application of TOD concepts and theories have resulted in the inappropriate application of TOD principles in transit-oriented areas. This study aims to find the implementation of connecting routes and the use of pedestrian paths with descriptive-qualitative methods by field observation. The research will be conducted in the Transit-Oriented development area Karet-Bendungan Hilir. The study shows that although the area being researched provides an ideal permeable block for pedestrian access, a problem with the management of the access prevents the pedestrian access to be fully functioning as a pedestrian networks system inside a Transit-Oriented Development area.

Analysis of determination Transit Oriented Development areas (TOD) at Light Rail Transit (LRT) stations in Palembang City Review on environmental aspects

<p>The concept of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) at the Light Rail Transit (LRT) station in Palembang City in terms of Environmental Aspects. This study discussed the city of Palembang which already has several transit-based transportation such as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and Light Rail Transit (LRT) as a solution to overcome existing congestion. The several areas that still have congestion points and have not been able to be minimized, namely; (1) Bumi Sriwijaya, (2) Cinde Market, (3) 16 Ilir Market, and (4) Jakabaring. At this location, there were several problem phenomena that are still faced in the implementation of the existing TOD where the community does not use an integrated transportation system, This research used Process Hierarchy Analysis (AHP) method. This research was the preparation of evaluation and analysis of the determination of the Transit Oriented Development (TOD) area in the city of Palembang in terms of environmental aspects based on the AHP decision-making method. The research locations reviewed in this study are densely populated areas. In this study using a quantitative research approach. A quantitative approach used to analyze the determination of the Transit Oriented Development (TOD) area in Palembang City in terms of environmental aspects using AHP decision-making analysis techniques in compiling research discussions. The potential as location of the Transit Oriented Development (TOD) area in Palembang City was the Pasar 16 Ilir area (location 3). This area had the highest potential from other areas after the AHP data processing was carried out against the three main criteria for determining the TOD area.</p>

Analysis of financing schemes from land value in Transit Oriented Development at Bubulak Terminal

<p class="ListParagraph1">Oriented areas are often known as Transit Oriented Development (TOD) requiring financing, which is absolutely necessaryto accommodate developing activities and encouraging regional growth and land use plans in accordance with TOD regulations,Bubulak Terminal is one of the terminals in Bogor City because has a variety of economic activities be it bus companies (PO), public transport, trade and services. This study plans land use in accordance with PermenATR/KaBPN No. 16 of 2017 concerning TOD Development Guidelines and using a financing scheme for the Bubulak Terminal Area using analysis calculations with the Financial and Economic Calculation Methods, the results of these calculations that are in accordance with data from internet literature studies of scientific papers and books. The results of the analysis of the TOD area of Bubulak Terminal with a mix use designation of 1606 pcu/hour. The results of the calculation of the Financial Calculation value of NPV (Net Present Value) are RP 38.144.000.000,00 and the results of the IRR calculation for the Bubulak Terminal area show an IRR value of 14.92 %, so the project is feasible to run/choose with a capital cost (WACC) of 11.56%. While the calculation result of the Economic Net Present Value (ENPV), the calculation result is RP 325.848.272.000,00 and the result of the Economic internal rate of return (EIRR) is 31.19%, the project will benefit and is feasible to run with revenue in 2023 Stakeholders involved in the TOD area at Bubulak Terminal, namely BPTJ as the regulator as well as the Responsible Agency for Cooperation Projects (PJPK) in developing TOD in Jabodetabek.</p>

Implementation strategy of transit-oriented development based on the bus rapid transit system in Indonesia

The bus rapid transit (BRT) system has become a cheap public transportation option worldwide, including in Indonesia. The problem in the Jababeka area, Indonesia, was the unconnectedness and lack of transportation as a sustainable area with the whole residence, modal shift, and easy access for people. This research aimed to improve access to Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) based public transportation by implementing the Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Model in the Jababeka area, Bekasi Regency. In this research, modeling was made by using PTV Visum with the trip assignment method and continued with the projected movement from 2022 to 2042, resulting from the people movement survey in 2022 and the SWOT strategy. The sample of this research consists of 210 respondents domiciled in nine subdistricts of Bekasi Regency. The result of this research was that the Jababeka area, Bekasi, must be planned as a TOD-based area, facilitating people to fulfill their transportation needs so that derived demand can run efficiently. Therefore, the implemented strategy must improve transportation access by developing TOD areas with a BRT system. Jababeka area was developed using the typology of regional scale city TOD, with a potential sub-city and environmental TOD typology. TOD development using the BRT system must be able to shift the intercity movement to local movement because residential areas were provided as the substitute for intercity movement.

Spatial Modeling for Residential Optimization in Dukuh Atas Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Area, Jakarta, Indonesia

Jakarta, as a metropolitan city, has a complexity of urban problems, one of which is the shape of the city, which is spread out and results in people’s dependence on motorized vehicles. Transit-oriented development (TOD) areas are one alternative to solving these problems by increasing density and accessibility between destinations and integrating modes of public transportation. This article aims to predict the occupancy density that has not been optimized by vertical development to optimize the use of space in the Dukuh Atas TOD area through spatial analysis. This study uses quantitative analysis through the Geographic Information System (GIS) method by analyzing land suitability through overlay techniques, calculating environmental carrying capacity in residential areas, analyzing building density index using the Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) method, and extracting dense areas by superimposing on Floor Area Ratio (FAR) data. Based on the results of the conformity analysis, it was found that there were areas that were not suitable for approximately 16.33% of the total area of the Dukuh Atas TOD area, especially in the western part. The calculation of environmental carrying capacity results shows that the TOD area of Dukuh Atas can still accommodate 2.05 times the current population. To re-optimize it, an allocation of residential density area is generated following the FAR in Jakarta’s Detailed Spatial Plan so that the maximum number of floors can be achieved. The results of these calculations can produce predictions of residential needs that are more detailed and consistent with the conditions of the TOD area in Dukuh Atas.

The travel, equity and wellbeing impacts of transit-oriented development in Global South

Transit-oriented development (TOD) has been widely introduced in the Global South countries and drawn growing scholarly attention. This paper critically reviews and concisely summarizes the research findings pertaining to the travel, equity and wellbeing impacts of TOD in the Global South. We identify 53 relevant studies and find that TOD increases public transportation ridership and promotes subjective well-being. However, similar to what happens in the Global North, TOD in the Global South also induces gentrification and unexpected social inequalities. We call for more critical and theoretical discussions about the uniqueness of TOD in Global South and application of more sophisticated methods and more detailed indicators to better explain the impacts of TOD. Future studies may also be fruitful to investigate some new topics, such as the role of state in TOD-induced gentrification, residential dissonance in TOD areas and hedonic adaptation to the improvement in transit services.

Influence of TOD Modes on Passenger Travel Behavior in Urban Rail Transit Systems

Transit-oriented development (TOD) mode refers to the integrated development of high-density and multi-functional land in the vicinity of core public transportation stations to increase public transportation rates and address problems such as traffic congestion and land shortages. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend the relationship between TOD areas and the travel behavior of rail transit residents. However, the income level and occupation of residents have a significant impact on their travel behavior, as people tend to choose their residential, work, and entertainment areas based on their economic characteristics. This paper focuses primarily on two aspects: how to distinguish TOD areas from non-TOD areas (specifically, rail stations) and the variations in the travel behavior of the people residing in these areas. Rail stations were first classified via cluster analysis according to the selected TOD indexes; then, a propensity score matching method was applied to control the influence of self-selection behavior. Based on this, the matched results were analyzed to study the difference in the travel behavior characteristics of residents in TOD and non-TOD areas. The results indicate that residents in TOD areas are more likely to travel by public transportation than those from non-TOD areas. The findings of this study promote a people-oriented urban planning concept and would have practical implications for applications of TOD modes on urban public transportation systems.

Where Are Potential Areas for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)—Exploring the Demands for Built Environment for TOD Planning

Sustainable urban growth advocates the implementation of transit-oriented development (TOD) to optimize urban spatial structure. The bilateral planning concept of TOD emphasizes the importance of discovering areas with existing TOD features but poor public transit service (potential TOD areas) and further introducing transit connectivity or conducting TOD policy in such areas to facilitate sustainable transportation. However, current studies that are devoted to discovering potential TOD areas remain scarce. In this study, we find that random forest (RF) is an optimal algorithm that can effectively identify potential TOD regions in Hong Kong. We propose an RF-mediated machine learning model (RF-TPI model) and reveal underlying mechanisms of specific indicators. After iteratively learning the typical features of TOD areas in Hong Kong, the developed RF-TPI model shows great capacity to identify potential TOD areas, with satisfactory model performances (accuracy score: 0.89, precision score: 0.81). Further investigation on manifestations of indicators by the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) interpreter demonstrates the intricate, significant nonlinear and threshold effects of distinct indicators. Conclusively, we highlight that random forest would be a prospective tool for identifying potential TOD areas to aid TOD strategy in urban sustainable endeavors.

An Empirical Analysis of the Link Between Built Environment and Safety in Chicago’s Transit Station Areas

Problem, research strategy, and findings Considering that safety is a key environmental factor that promotes health, understanding the relationship between built environment features around transit station areas and crime may shed light on how to foster healthy communities. Yet, there is limited work that has examined how the combination of different built environment features around transit correlate with different crimes. We addressed this issue in this study using data from Chicago (IL). First, we used cluster analysis to classify stations in Chicago in a spectrum from transit-oriented development (TOD) to transit-adjacent development (TAD) categories depending on their built environment characteristics: central business district (CBD)–TOD, TOD, hybrid, and TAD. Then, we identified the block groups that fell within a 1-mile network distance of each of these station areas and used propensity score matching to find adequate comparison block groups for them. Results from our analyses show that CBD station areas with the highest activity density, land use diversity, amenity richness, accessibility, and walkability (i.e., CBD–TOD) were the safest. In contrast, TOD areas with medium activity density and land use diversity but high amenity richness, walkability, and accessibility appeared to be the least safe. That said, low levels across these built environment features as found in TAD station areas also correlated with higher crime. Takeaway for practice These findings suggest the importance of balancing amenity richness and accessibility with density and land use diversity. Areas rich in amenities but with lower levels of land use diversity and density may attract crime victims and offenders while facilitating spaces in which the availability of eyes on the street or guardians is low. As such, these station areas may be poor promoters of healthy communities if high crime rates deter people from engaging in active mobility promoted by greater walkability, connectivity, and amenity richness.