Transgenic Adenocarcinoma Of The Mouse Prostate Research Articles

Intracellular Osteopontin Promotes the Release of TNFα by Mast Cells to Restrain Neuroendocrine Prostate Cancer.

Neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) is an aggressive form of prostate cancer that emerges as tumors become resistant to hormone therapies or, rarely, arises de novo in treatment-naïve patients. The urgent need for effective therapies against NEPC is hampered by the limited knowledge of the biology governing this lethal disease. Based on our prior observations in the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) spontaneous prostate cancer model, in which the genetic depletion of either mast cells (MC) or the matricellular protein osteopontin (OPN) increases NEPC frequency, we tested the hypothesis that MCs can restrain NEPC through OPN production, using in vitro co-cultures between murine or human tumor cell lines and MCs, and in vivo experiments. We unveiled a role for the intracellular isoform of OPN, so far neglected compared with the secreted isoform. Mechanistically, we unraveled that the intracellular isoform of OPN promotes TNFα production in MCs via the TLR2/TLR4-MyD88 axis, specifically triggered by the encounter with NEPC cells. We found that MC-derived TNFα, in turn, hampered the growth of NEPC. We then identified the protein syndecan-1 (SDC1) as the NEPC-specific TLR2/TLR4 ligand that triggered this pathway. Interrogating published single-cell RNA-sequencing data, we validated this mechanism in a different mouse model. Translational relevance of the results was provided by in silico analyses of available human NEPC datasets and by immunofluorescence on patient-derived adenocarcinoma and NEPC lesions. Overall, our results show that MCs actively inhibit NEPC, paving the way for innovative MC-based therapies for this fatal tumor. We also highlight SDC1 as a potential biomarker for incipient NEPC.

A pharmacokinetic model for hyperpolarized 13C-pyruvate MRI when using metabolite-specific bSSFP sequences.

Metabolite-specific balanced SSFP (MS-bSSFP) sequences are increasingly used in hyperpolarized [1-13C]Pyruvate (HP 13C) MRI studies as they improve SNR by refocusing the magnetization each TR. Currently, pharmacokinetic models used to fit conversion rate constants, kPL and kPB, and rate constant maps do not account for differences in the signal evolution of MS-bSSFP acquisitions. In this work, a flexible MS-bSSFP model was built that can be used to fit conversion rate constants for these experiments. The model was validated in vivo using paired animal (healthy rat kidneys n = 8, transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate n = 3) and human renal cell carcinoma (n = 3) datasets. Gradient echo (GRE) acquisitions were used with a previous GRE model to compare to the results of the proposed GRE-bSSFP model. Within simulations, the proposed GRE-bSSFP model fits the simulated data well, whereas a GRE model shows bias because of model mismatch. For the in vivo datasets, the estimated conversion rate constants using the proposed GRE-bSSFP model are consistent with a previous GRE model. Jointly fitting the lactate T2 with kPL resulted in less precise kPL estimates. The proposed GRE-bSSFP model provides a method to estimate conversion rate constants, kPL and kPB, for MS-bSSFP HP 13C experiments. This model may also be modified and used for other applications, for example, estimating rate constants with other hyperpolarized reagents or multi-echo bSSFP.

Abstract 6816: Prevention of cancer cachexia by inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase

Abstract Background: Cancer cachexia is a devastating syndrome characterized by progressive muscle wasting and hyperinflammation. The underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood with no treatment options available. Cachexia is driven by systemic inflammation, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and apoptotic cell death (debris). The resolution of inflammation as an active biochemical process is regulated by novel pro-resolving lipid mediators. Arachidonic acid-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) are lipid mediators stimulating inflammation resolution. EETs are rapidly metabolized by the enzyme soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH). sEH is a critical cause of inflammation and a biomarker in several chronic inflammatory diseases. sEH inhibitors promote tissue regeneration and counter-regulate pro-inflammatory cytokines. We hypothesized that pharmacological inhibition of the sEH may prevent cachexia. Methods: We investigated murine cancer cachexia models using genetically engineered pancreatic (KPC) and prostate (TRAMP C1) tumor cell lines, and “TRAMP” mice (transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate). We performed LC-MS/MS-based profiling of bioactive lipids in plasma from KPC and colon cancer (CT26)-induced cachectic mice. Results: KPC cells injected intraperitoneally induced 19.7% and 54.1% reduction in muscle weight in the tibialis anterior and soleus, respectively, in immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice compared to non-tumor bearing (NTB) mice. LC-MS/MS revealed KPC and CT26 cachexia induced a pro-inflammatory eicosanoid-driven cytokine storm. The human sEH inhibitor EC5026 delayed the onset of cachexia, leading to sustained survival over 250 days post-injection in the KPC model (n=15 mice/group). sEH expression was increased in the gastrocnemius of KPC mice by day 22 post-tumor cell injection vs. NTB. EC5026 counter-regulated sEH expression compared to vehicle-treated. In the TRAMP model, 5/5 of mice treated with EC5026 survived 230 days post-treatment compared to no survival of vehicle-treated mice (n=5). The transplanted KPC and TRAMP showed reduced CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes in the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius vs. NTB after flow cytometry analysis. EC5026 stimulated a general increase in CD3+ T lymphocytes and counter-regulated an eicosanoid-driven cytokine storm as shown by cytokine assays. EC5026 treatment increased tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscle weights and body weights compared to vehicle-treated KPC and TRAMP mice. Conclusions: sEH inhibition may be a novel therapeutic approach to cachexia by targeting the immune response via stimulation of resolution of inflammation without toxicity or immunosuppression. Since sEH inhibitors have proven safe and effective in clinical trials for controlling multiple inflammatory diseases, this study provides a basis for the rapid clinical translation of sEH inhibitors to prevent/reverse cachexia in cancer patients. Citation Format: Rachel L. Bayer, Sarina Virani, Michael Gillespie, Jacqueline Capuano, Keira Smith, Katherine Quinlivan, Kimberly Vasquez, Jun Yang, Haixia Yang, Nicholas Mitsiades, Bruce D. Hammock, Dipak Panigrahy. Prevention of cancer cachexia by inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 6816.

The β-Secretase 1 Enzyme as a Novel Therapeutic Target for Prostate Cancer.

Recent studies have demonstrated the association of APP and Aβ with cancer, suggesting that BACE1 may play an important role in carcinogenesis. In the present study, we assessed BACE1's usefulness as a therapeutic target in prostate cancer (PCa). BACE1 expression was observed in human PCa tissue samples, patient-derived xenografts (PDX), human PCa xenograft tissue in nude mice, and transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) tissues by immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis. Additionally, the downstream product of BACE1 activity, i.e., Aβ1-42 expression, was also observed in these PCa tissues by IHC as well as by PET imaging in TRAMP mice. Furthermore, BACE1 gene expression and activity was confirmed in several established PCa cell lines (LNCaP, C4-2B-enzalutamide sensitive [S], C4-2B-enzalutamide resistant [R], 22Rv1-S, 22Rv1-R, PC3, DU145, and TRAMP-C1) by real-time PCR and fluorometric assay, respectively. Treatment with a pharmacological inhibitor of BACE1 (MK-8931) strongly reduced the proliferation of PCa cells in in vitro and in vivo models, analyzed by multiple assays (MTT, clonogenic, and trypan blue exclusion assays and IHC). Cell cycle analyses revealed an increase in the sub-G1 population and a significant modulation in other cell cycle stages (G1/S/G2/M) following MK-8931 treatment. Most importantly, in vivo administration of MK-8931 intraperitoneal (30 mg/kg) strongly inhibited TRAMP-C1 allograft growth in immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice (approximately 81% decrease, p = 0.019). Furthermore, analysis of tumor tissue using the prostate cancer-specific pathway array revealed the alteration of several genes involved in PCa growth and progression including Forkhead O1 (FOXO1). All together, these findings suggest BACE1 as a novel therapeutic target in advanced PCa.

Castration promotes the browning of the prostate tumor microenvironment

BackgroundAdipose tissue has gained attention due to its potential paracrine role. Periprostatic adipose tissue surrounds the prostate and the prostatic urethra, and it is an essential player in prostate cancer progression. Since obesity is directly related to human tumor progression, and adipose tissue depots are one of the significant components of the tumor microenvironment, the molecular mediators of the communication between adipocytes and epithelial cells are in the spotlight. Although periprostatic white adipose tissue contributes to prostate cancer progression, brown adipose tissue (BAT), which has beneficial effects in metabolic pathologies, has been scarcely investigated concerning cancer progression. Given that adipose tissue is a target of androgen signaling, the actual role of androgen removal on the periprostatic adipose tissue was the aim of this work.MethodsSurgical castration of the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) was employed. By histology examination and software analysis, WAT and BAT tissue was quantified. 3T3-like adipocytes were used to study the role of Casodex® in modifying adipocyte differentiation and to investigate the function of the secretome of adipocytes on the proliferation of androgen-dependent and independent prostate cancer cells. Finally, the role of cell communication was assayed by TRAMP-C1 xenograft implanted in the presence of 3T3-like adipocytes.ResultsAndrogen removal increases brown/beige adipose tissue in the fat immediately surrounding the prostate glands of TRAMP mice, concomitant with an adjustment of the metabolism. Castration increases body temperature, respiratory exchange rate, and energy expenditure. Also, in vitro, it is described that blocking androgen signaling by Casodex® increases the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) marker in 3T3-like adipocytes. Finally, the effect of brown/beige adipocyte secretome was studied on the proliferation of prostate cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. The secretome of brown/beige adipocytes reduces the proliferation of prostate cancer cells mediated partly by the secretion of extracellular vesicles.ConclusionsConsequently, we concluded that hampering androgen signaling plays a crucial role in the browning of the periprostatic adipose tissue. Also, the presence of brown adipocytes exhibits the opposite effect to that of white adipocytes in vitro regulating processes that govern the mechanisms of cell proliferation of prostate cancer cells. And finally, promoting the browning of adipose tissue in the periprostatic adipose tissue might be a way to handle prostate cancer cell progression.EECkevEGf-HMwkJP3j4bZsVideo

Androgen-regulated stromal complement component 7 (C7) suppresses prostate cancer growth.

The complement system is a major component of the innate immune system that works through the cytolytic effect of the membrane attack complex (MAC). Complement component 7 (C7) is essential for MAC assembly and its precisely regulated expression level is crucial for the cytolytic activity of MAC. We show that C7 is specifically expressed by the stromal cells in both mouse and human prostates. The expression level of C7 inversely correlates with clinical outcomes in prostate cancer. C7 is positively regulated by androgen signaling in the mouse prostate stromal cells. The androgen receptor directly transcriptionally regulates the mouse and human C7. Increasing C7 expression in the C57Bl/6 syngeneic RM-1 and Pten-Kras allografts suppresses tumor growth in vivo. Conversely, C7 haploinsufficiency promotes tumor growth in the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model. Interestingly, replenishing C7 in androgen-sensitive Pten-Kras tumors during androgen depletion only slightly enhances cellular apoptosis, highlighting the diverse mechanisms employed by tumors to counteract complement activity. Collectively, our research indicates that augmenting complement activity could be a promising therapeutic approach to impede the development of castration resistance in prostate cancer.

Lobe-specific responses of TRAMP mice dorsolateral prostate following celecoxib and nintedanib therapy.

Delayed cancer progression in the ventral prostate of the Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of the Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) model has been previously reported upon celecoxib and nintedanib co-administration. Herein, we sought to further investigate the effects of these drugs association in some of their direct molecular targets (COX-2, VEGF and VEGFR-2) and in reactive stroma markers (TGF-β, αSMA, vimentin and pro-collagen 1) in the dorsolateral prostate, looking for lobe-specific responses. Male TRAMP mice were treated with celecoxib (10mg/Kg, i.o.) and/or nintedanib (15mg/Kg, i.o.) for 6weeks and prostate was harvested for morphological and protein expression analyses. Results showed that combined therapy resulted in unique antitumor effects in dorsolateral prostate, especially due to the respective stromal or epithelial antiproliferative actions of these drugs, which altogether led to a complete inversion in high-grade (HGPIN) versus low-grade (LGPIN) premalignant lesion incidences in relation to controls. At the molecular level, this duality in drug action was paralleled by the differential down/upregulation of TGF-β signaling by celecoxib/nintedanib, thus leading to associated changes in stroma composition towards regression or quiescence, respectively. Additionally, combined therapy was able to promote decreased expression of inflammatory (COX-2) and angiogenesis (VEGF/VEGFR-2) mediators. Overall, celecoxib and nintedanib association provided enhanced antitumor effects in TRAMP dorsolateral as compared to former registers in ventral prostate, thus demonstrating lobe-specific responses of this combined chemoprevention approach. Among these responses, we highlight the ability in promoting TGF-β signaling and its associated stromal maturation/stabilization, thus yielding a more quiescent stromal milieu and resulting in greater epithelial proliferation impairment.

Orchestration of miRNA Patterns by Testosterone and Dietary Tomato Carotenoids during Early Prostate Carcinogenesis in TRAMP Mice

BackgroundThe integrative effects of prostate cancer risk factors, such as diet and endocrine status, on cancer-associated miRNA expression are poorly defined. ObjectivesThis study aimed to define the influence of androgens and diet (tomato and lycopene) on prostatic miRNA expression during early carcinogenesis in the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model. MethodsWild type (WT) and TRAMP mice were fed control, tomato-containing, or lycopene-containing diets from 4 to 10 weeks of age. Mice underwent either sham (intact) or castration surgery at 8 wk, and half of the castrated mice received testosterone (2.5 mg/kg body weight/d) at 9 wk. Mice were killed at 10 wk, and dorsolateral prostate expression of 602 miRNAs was assessed. ResultsWe detected expression of 88 miRNAs (15% of 602), all of which were present in the TRAMP, in comparison with 49 miRNAs being detectable (8%) in WT. Expression of 61 miRNAs differed by TRAMP genotype, with the majority upregulated in TRAMP. Of the 61 miRNAs, 42 were responsive to androgen status. Diet affected 41% of the miRNAs, which differed by genotype (25/61) and 48% of the androgen-sensitive miRNAs (20/42), indicating overlapping genetic and dietary influences on prostate miRNAs. Tomato and lycopene feeding influenced miRNAs previously associated with the regulation of androgen (miR-145 and let-7), MAPK (miR-106a, 204, 145/143, and 200b/c), and p53 signaling (miR-125 and miR-98) pathways. ConclusionsExpression of miRNAs in early prostate carcinogenesis is sensitive to genetic, endocrine, and diet drivers, suggesting novel mechanisms by which tomato and lycopene feeding modulate early prostate carcinogenesis.

Multi‐omic profiling reveals an RNA processing rheostat that predisposes to prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy and the third leading cause of cancer deaths. GWAS have identified variants associated with prostate cancer susceptibility; however, mechanistic and functional validation of these mutations is lacking. We used CRISPR‐Cas9 genome editing to introduce a missense variant identified in the ELAC2 gene, which encodes a dually localised nuclear and mitochondrial RNA processing enzyme, into the mouse Elac2 gene as well as to generate a prostate‐specific knockout of Elac2. These mutations caused enlargement and inflammation of the prostate and nodule formation. The Elac2 variant or knockout mice on the background of the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model show that Elac2 mutation with a secondary genetic insult exacerbated the onset and progression of prostate cancer. Multiomic profiling revealed defects in energy metabolism that activated proinflammatory and tumorigenic pathways as a consequence of impaired noncoding RNA processing and reduced protein synthesis. Our physiologically relevant models show that the ELAC2 variant is a predisposing factor for prostate cancer and identify changes that underlie the pathogenesis of this cancer.

Abstract 4230: Transcriptomic evaluation of exercise-induced suppression of prostate cancer aggressiveness

Abstract Previous studies from our laboratory have showed that aerobic exercise significantly reduced the number of aggressive poorly differentiated tumors in the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model. Despite these encouraging data the underlying mechanism of how exercise reduces tumor aggressiveness remains undefined. We aimed to fill this scientific gap by utilizing a transcriptomics approach to identify potential mechanisms by which aerobic exercise suppresses prostate tumor aggressiveness. Methods: Twelve TRAMP mice, 8-10 weeks of age, were equally randomized to exercise or control group. Mice in the exercise group were singularly housed in cages with running wheels for 12 weeks. Mice in the control group maintained normal group housing and activity conditions for 12 weeks. At euthanasia, prostate tumors were excised, weighed and processed for immunohistochemistry and transcriptome analysis. Two independent pathologists, blinded to the interventions, performed histological analysis of the genitourinary mass. Outputs of sequencing data were assessed for quality and accuracy. Counts for all known mRNA, differential expression, and heatmap were prepared. Differential expression was filtered to identify genes that had a ≥2-fold change with an adjusted p<0.05. Gene ontology and pathway analyses was performed to reveal selective pathways activated. Results: No significant difference in genitourinary mass, body mass or tumor free body mass was found between groups. Pathology revealed majority of the tissue from the control group exhibited moderate to poorly differentiated tumors (3/6). On the other hand, none of the animals in the exercise intervention group showed such pathology. Four out of five showed well differentiated tumors including prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) lesions in one animal. Transcriptomic analysis coupled with gene set enrichment identified pathways associated with triglyceride catabolic process, lipid homeostasis, lipid metabolic process, triglyceride metabolic process to be most impacted. Differentially expressed genes of interest include haptoglobin (HP) and hormone sensitive lipoprotein lipase (Lipe) were significantly lower in the exercise group. Conclusion: Our preliminary findings provide novel evidence suggesting that exercise suppresses prostate tumor aggressiveness, in part, through transcriptomic modulation and altered cellular pathways associated with intratumoral energy metabolism. This project was supported by the National Center Institute designated Mays Cancer Center at UT Health San Antonio. Citation Format: Darpan I. Patel, Paul Rivas, Yidong Chen, Zhao Lai, Robert L. Reddick, Yuji Ikeno, Rita Ghosh, A. Pratap Kumar. Transcriptomic evaluation of exercise-induced suppression of prostate cancer aggressiveness. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2023; Part 1 (Regular and Invited Abstracts); 2023 Apr 14-19; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(7_Suppl):Abstract nr 4230.

Cannabidiol alters mitochondrial bioenergetics via VDAC1 and triggers cell death in hormone-refractory prostate cancer

In spite of the huge advancements in both diagnosis and interventions, hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC) remains a major hurdle in prostate cancer (PCa). Metabolic reprogramming plays a key role in PCa oncogenesis and resistance. However, the dynamics between metabolism and oncogenesis are not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that two multi-target natural products, cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabigerol (CBG), suppress HRPC development in the TRansgenic Adenocarcinoma of the Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) model by reprogramming metabolic and oncogenic signaling. Mechanistically, CBD increases glycolytic capacity and inhibits oxidative phosphorylation in enzalutamide-resistant HRPC cells. This action of CBD originates from its effect on metabolic plasticity via modulation of VDAC1 and hexokinase II (HKII) coupling on the outer mitochondrial membrane, which leads to strong shifts of mitochondrial functions and oncogenic signaling pathways. The effect of CBG on enzalutamide-resistant HRPC cells was less pronounced than CBD and only partially attributable to its action on mitochondria. However, when optimally combined, these two cannabinoids exhibited strong anti-tumor effects in TRAMP mice, even when these had become refractory to enzalutamide, thus pointing to their therapeutical potential against PCa.

Broccoli sprouts delay prostate cancer formation and decrease prostate cancer severity with a concurrent decrease in HDAC3 protein expression in TRAMP mice

Background: Cruciferous vegetables have been associated with the chemoprevention of cancer. Epigenetic regulators have been identified as important targets for prostate cancer chemoprevention. Treatment of human prostate cancer cells with sulforaphane (SFN), a chemical from broccoli and broccoli sprouts, inhibits epigenetic regulators such as histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes, but it is not known whether consumption of a diet high in broccoli sprouts impacts epigenetic mechanisms in an in vivo model of prostate cancer. Objective: In the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model, we tested the hypothesis that a broccoli sprout diet suppresses prostate cancer, inhibits HDAC expression, alters histone modifications, and changes the expression of genes regulated by HDACs. Methods: TRAMP mice were fed a 15% broccoli sprout, or control AIN93G diet; tissue samples were collected at 12 and 28 weeks of age. Results: Mice fed broccoli sprouts had detectable levels of SFN metabolites in liver, kidney, colon, and prostate tissues. Broccoli sprouts reduced prostate cancer incidence, and progression to invasive cancer by 11- and 2.4-fold at 12 and 28 weeks of age, respectively. There was a significant decline in HDAC3 protein expression in the epithelial cells of prostate ventral and anterior lobes at 12 weeks. Broccoli sprout consumption also decreased histone H3 lysine 9 tri-methylation in the ventral lobe (12 week), and decreased histone H3 lysine 18 acetylation in all prostate lobes (28 weeks). A decline in p16 mRNA levels, a gene regulated by HDAC3, was associated with broccoli sprouts consumption, but no significant changes were noted at the protein level. Conclusions: Broccoli sprout intake caused a decline in prostate cancer occurrence and HDAC3 protein expression in the prostate, extending prior work that implicated loss of HDAC3/corepressor interactions as a key preventive mechanism by SFN in vivo.

Suppression of prostate cancer and amelioration of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment through selective immunoproteasome inhibition

ABSTRACT New treatment options to battle hormone-refractory prostate carcinoma (PC) are a pressing medical need. Chronic inflammation has been implicated in PC etiology. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-23 and IL-17 are key mediators to promote growth of PC. Here, we evaluate the potential of immunoproteasome inhibition for anti-inflammatory and direct anti-tumorigenic therapy of PC. The anti-tumor effect of immunoproteasome inhibitor ONX 0914 was tested in mouse and human PC cells and the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of immunoproteasome inhibition was analyzed in transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice in preventive and therapeutic settings and in castration-resistant (CR)PC after castration. Inhibition of the immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 induced apoptotic cell death in PC cell lines. In TRAMP mice, ONX 0914-treatment resulted in significant inhibition of PC growth with a decreased frequency of malignant prostatic lesions and inhibition of metastasis formation. The number of immunosuppressive myeloid cells in PC was greatly reduced in response to ONX 0914. Thus, immunoproteasome inhibition shows remarkable efficacy against PC progression in vivo and impedes tumor recurrence in CRPC-TRAMP mice by blocking the immunosuppressive inflammatory response in the tumor microenvironment. In conclusion, we show that the immunoproteasome is a promising drug target for the treatment of PC.

Vitamin D deficiency aggravates growth and metastasis of prostate cancer through promoting EMT in two β-catenin-related mechanisms

Increasing evidence has demonstrated that vitamin D deficiency is associated with prostate cancer progression, but its mechanism remains unclear. This study investigated effects of vitamin D deficiency on growth and metastasis of prostate cancer. Nude mice and Transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice were fed with vitamin D-deficient (VDD) diets. Prostate cancer growth was aggravated in VDD diet-fed nude mice and TRAMP mice. Invasion and metastasis of prostate cancer were exacerbated in VDD diet-fed TRAMP mice. In vitro experiments showed that calcitriol, an active vitamin D3, inhibited migration and invasion in transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 -stimulated and -unstimulated PC-3 and DU145 cells. Mechanistically, calcitriol inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in TGF-β1 -stimulated and -unstimulated DU145 cells. Unexpectedly, calcitriol did not inhibit Smad2/3 phosphorylation in TGF-β1-stimulated DU145 cells. Instead, calcitriol downregulated expression of proliferation-, metastasis- and EMT-related genes, includes Cyclin D1, MMP7, and Zeb1, by inhibiting interaction between TCF4 and β-catenin. In addition, calcitriol promoted interaction between cytoplasmic VDR and β-catenin, reduced β-catenin phosphorylation and elevated β-catenin/E-cadherin adherens junction complex formation. We provide novel evidence that vitamin D deficiency aggravates growth and metastasis of prostate cancer possibly through promoting EMT in two β-catenin-related mechanisms.

Differential effects of omega-3 PUFAS on tumor progression at early and advanced stages in TRAMP mice.

In vitro studies evidenced antitumor effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ([n-3]PUFAs), but their effects on prostate cancer (PCa) remain controversial in epidemiological studies. Here we investigated whether an (n-3) PUFA-enriched diet affects tumor progression in transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP), at early (12 weeksage) and advanced stages (20 weeksage). TRAMP mice were fed with standard rodent diet (C12, C20) or (n-3) PUFA-enriched diet containing 10% fish oil (T12, T20). A group of 8 weeksage animals fed standard diet was also used for comparison (C8). The ventral prostate was processed for histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses and serum samples submitted to biochemical assays. At early stages, (n-3) PUFA increased the frequency of normal epithelium (3.8-fold) and decreased the frequency of high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia (3.3-fold) and in situ carcinoma (1.9-fold) in the gland, maintaining prostate pathological status similar to C8 group. At advanced stages, 50% of the animals developed a large primary tumor in both C20 and T20, and tumor weight did not differ (C20: 2.2 ± 2.4; T20: 2.8 ± 2.9 g). The ventral prostate of T12 and of T20 animals that did not develop primary tumors showed lower cell proliferation, tissue expressions of androgen (AR) and glucocorticoid (GR) receptors, than their respective controls. For these animals, (n-3) PUFA also avoided an increase in the number of T-lymphocytes, collagen fibers, and αSMA immunoreactivity, and preserved stromal gland microenvironment. (n-3) PUFA also lowered serum triglycerides and cholesterol, regulating the lipid metabolism of TRAMP mice. (n-3) PUFAs had a protective effect at early stages of PCa, delaying tumor progression in TRAMP mice, in parallel with reductions in cell proliferation, AR, and GR and maintenance of the stromal compartment of the gland. However, (n-3) PUFAs did not prevent the development of primary tumors for the T20 group, reinforcing the need for further investigation at advanced stages of disease.

GH Action in Prostate Cancer Cells Promotes Proliferation, Limits Apoptosis, and Regulates Cancer-related Gene Expression.

Previous studies investigating the effects of blocking the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis in prostate cancer found no effects of the growth hormone receptor (GHR) antagonist, pegvisomant, on the growth of grafted human prostate cancer cells in vivo. However, human GHR is not activated by mouse GH, so direct actions of GH on prostate cancer cells were not evaluated in this context. The present study addresses the species specificity of GH-GHR activity by investigating GH actions in prostate cancer cell lines derived from a mouse Pten-deletion model. In vitro cell growth was stimulated by GH and reduced by pegvisomant. These in vitro GH effects were mediated at least in part by the activation of JAK2 and STAT5. When Pten-mutant cells were grown as xenografts in mice, pegvisomant treatment dramatically reduced xenograft size, and this was accompanied by decreased proliferation and increased apoptosis. RNA sequencing of xenografts identified 1765 genes upregulated and 953 genes downregulated in response to pegvisomant, including many genes previously implicated as cancer drivers. Further evaluation of a selected subset of these genes via quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction determined that some genes exhibited similar regulation by pegvisomant in prostate cancer cells whether treatment was in vivo or in vitro, indicating direct regulation by GH via GHR activation in prostate cancer cells, whereas other genes responded to pegvisomant only in vivo, suggesting indirect regulation by pegvisomant effects on the host endocrine environment. Similar results were observed for a prostate cancer cell line derived from the mouse transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model.

β-Carotene Oxygenase 2 Genotype Modulates the Impact of Dietary Lycopene on Gene Expression during Early TRAMP Prostate Carcinogenesis

Epidemiologic studies suggest lycopene and tomato intake are inversely associated with human prostate cancer incidence. In the genetically driven murine prostate carcinogenesis model transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP), prostate cancer is inhibited by feeding of lycopene or tomatoes, and these effects are modulated by the β-carotene oxygenase 2 (Bco2) genotype. We sought insight into this interaction through evaluation of prostate gene expression patterns during early TRAMP carcinogenesis. Three-week-old TRAMP/+ or TRAMP/- × Bco2+/+ or Bco2-/- mice were fed a control, lycopene beadlet, or 10% tomato powder-containing semipurified diet (providing 0, 384 and 462 mg lycopene/kg diet, respectively) for 5 wk. Gene expression patterns were evaluated by prostate cancer- and cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism-focused arrays at age 8 wk. The TRAMP genotype profoundly alters gene expression patterns, specifically inducing pathways associated with cell survival [z-score = 2.09, -log(P value) = 29.2, p53 signaling (z-score 1.13, -log(P value) = 13.5], and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling [z-score = 0.302, -log(P value) = 12.1], while repressing phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) signaling [(z-score = -0.905, -log(P value) = 12.3], cholesterol synthesis [z-score = -1.941, -log(P-value) = 26.2], and LXR/RXR pathway activation [z-score = -1.941, -log(P value) = 23.1]. In comparison, lycopene- and tomato-feeding modestly modulate strong procarcinogenic TRAMP signaling. Lycopene decreased gene expression related to carcinogenesis [ Nkx3-1(NK3 homeobox 1)], tomato feeding increased expression of a gene involved in circadian regulation [Arntl (aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator like)], and tomato and/or lycopene increased expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism [Fasn (fatty acid synthase), Acaca(acetyl-CoA carboxylase alpha), Srebf1 (sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1), Hmgcr (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coA reductase), and Ptgs1 (prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1)] (all P < 0.05). The impact of Bco2 genotype was limited to a subset of lycopene-impacted genes [Apc (adenomatous polyposis coli), Mto1 (mitochondrial TRNA translation optimization 1), Nfkb1 (nuclear factor kappa B subunit 1), andRbm39 (RNA binding motif protein 39)]. The TRAMP genotype strongly impacts procarcinogenic gene expression prior to emergence of histopathologic disease. Dietary tomato and lycopene modestly temper these processes, while Bco2 genotype has a limited impact at this early stage. These observed patterns provide insight into the complex interactions between a dietary variable, here tomatoes and lycopene, genes impacting nutrient metabolism, and their modulating influences on oncogene-driven prostate carcinogenesis. These findings provide further mechanistic support, consistent with cancer outcomes in rodents experiments and human epidemiologic studies.

TLK1-mediated MK5-S354 phosphorylation drives prostate cancer cell motility and may signify distinct pathologies.

Metastases account for the majority of prostate cancer (PCa) deaths, and targeting them is a major goal of systemic therapy. We identified a novel interaction between two kinases: tousled‐like kinase 1 (TLK1) and MAP kinase‐activated protein kinase 5 (MK5) that promotes PCa spread. In PCa progression, TLK1–MK5 signalling appears to increase following antiandrogen treatment and in metastatic castration‐resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) patients. Determinations of motility rates (2D and 3D) of different TLK1‐ and MK5‐perturbed cells, including knockout (KO) and knockdown (KD), as well as the use of specific inhibitors, showed the importance of these two proteins for in vitro dissemination. We established that TLK1 phosphorylates MK5 on three residues (S160, S354 and S386), resulting in MK5 activation, and additionally, mobility shifts of MK5 also supported its phosphorylation by TLK1 in transfected HEK 293 cells. Expression of MK5‐S354A or kinase‐dead MK5 in MK5‐depleted mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells failed to restore their motility compared with that of wild‐type (WT) MK5‐rescued MK5−/− MEF cells. A pMK5‐S354 antiserum was used to establish this site as an authentic TLK1 target in androgen‐sensitive human prostate adenocarcinoma (LNCaP) cells, and was used in immunohistochemistry (IHC) studies of age‐related PCa sections from TRAMP (transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate) mice and to probe a human tissue microarray (TMA), which revealed pMK5‐S354 level is correlated with disease progression (Gleason score and nodal metastases). In addition, The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) analyses of PCa expression and genome‐wide association study (GWAS) relations identify TLK1 and MK5 as potential drivers of advanced PCa and as markers of mCRPC. Our work suggests that TLK1–MK5 signalling is functionally involved in driving PCa cell motility and clinical features of aggressiveness; hence, disruption of this axis may inhibit the metastatic spread of PCa.

A 10% Tomato Diet Selectively Reduces Radiation-Induced Damage in TRAMP Mice

BackgroundTomatoes contain carotenoids that have the potential to alter the effects of external beam radiation therapy (EBRT). ObjectivesWe hypothesized that dietary lyophilized tomato paste (TP) would reduce apoptosis within carotenoid-containing nonneoplastic tissues in EBRT-treated TRansgenic Adenocarcinoma of the Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) mice. MethodsMale TRAMP mice (n = 73) were provided an AIN-93G diet or a modified AIN-93G diet containing 10% TP (wt:wt) at 4 wk of age. Prostate tumor growth was monitored by ultrasound. The caudal half of the mouse was irradiated with 7.5 Gy (Rad) or 0 Gy (sham) at 24 wk of age or after the tumor volume exceeded 1000 mm3 with a Cobalt-60 source. Mice were euthanized 24 h postradiation. Carotenoids and α-tocopherol were measured by HPLC and compared by a t test. Tissues were assessed for radiation-induced changes (hematoxylin and eosin) and apoptosis [cleaved caspase-3 (CC3)] and compared by Kruskal–Wallis test or Freedman–Lane's permutation test. ResultsSerum concentrations of lycopene (52% lower), phytoene (26% lower), and α-tocopherol (22% lower) were decreased in TP-fed irradiated mice (TP-Rad) compared with TP-fed sham mice (P < 0.05). CC3 scores increased within the prostate tumor with radiation treatments (P < 0.05), but were not affected by tomato consumption. In nonneoplastic tissues, TP-Rad had a lower percentage of CC3-positive cells within the cranial (67% lower) and caudal (75% lower) duodenum than irradiated mice on the control diet (Rad) (P < 0.005). Likewise, CC3 scores within the dorsolateral prostate of TP-Rad trended toward lower scores than for Rad (P = 0.07). ConclusionsTP selectively reduces radiation-induced apoptosis in extratumoral tissues without decreasing radiation-induced apoptosis within the prostate tumor in TRAMP mice. Additional studies are needed to confirm and expand upon these findings.

Dietary Tomato Inhibits Tumor Angiogenesis in the TRAMP Model of Prostate Cancer but Is Not Protective With a Western-Style Diet

Abstract Objectives The objective of this study was to investigate the interplay between tomato powder (TP), incorporated into control (CON) and obesogenic (OB) diets, and PCa tumor growth and blood perfusion over time in a transgenic model of PCa. We hypothesized that TP would be protective against PCa growth. Methods Diets (either CON [17.2% kcal from fat] or OB [44.6% kcal from fat] both with and without 10% TP) were fed to transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice (n = 5/dietary group) from weaning. Tumor growth was monitored by weekly ultrasound scanning, at which time novel ultrasound microvessel images (UMI) were captured to quantitatively measure tumor blood perfusion over time. Animals were euthanized after 5 weeks of tumor growth, and tissues were collected for measurement of protein (HIF-1α, TNFα) and gene (ar, srd5a1, srd5a2) expression. Data were analyzed to determine differences between CON diets (without TP + with 10% TP) and OB diets (without TP + with 10% TP) and to evaluate the impact of 10% TP on outcome measures both independent of TP (No TP vs. TP) as well as within CON and OB diets (interaction effect of diet*TP) by mixed model ANCOVA with body weight as a covariate. Results UMI results showed good agreement with gold-standard immunohistochemistry quantification of endothelial cell density, indicating that this technique can be applied to non-invasively and longitudinally monitor tumor blood perfusion in vivo. Greater body weight (P = 0.029) and OB diets (P = 0.008) were associated with earlier age at tumor detection, and greater body weight was positively associated with tumor growth (P = 0.001). TP significantly inhibited prostate tumor angiogenesis (P = 0.043), but this inhibition differentially affected measured outcomes depending on CON or OB diets. TP led to reduced tumor growth (P = 0.004), intratumoral inflammation (TNFα; P = 0.019), and intratumoral androgen-regulated gene expression (srd5a1, srd5a2; P = 0.030 and P = 0.016, respectively) when incorporated with the CON diet but greater tumor growth and intratumoral gene expression when incorporated with the OB diet. Conclusions Results from this study show that protective benefits from dietary tomato are lost, or may become deleterious, when combined with a Western-style diet. Funding Sources CA was supported by the NIH NIBIB. MRL and PS were partially supported by NIH NCI.