Military Transformation Research Articles

The fragile nature of concentration of effort principle and the instability of the 3:1 force ratio

The complexity of the contemporary operating environment necessitates a continuous adaptation of the operational process, which is made possible by constant doctrinal adjustments, including a re-evaluation of the principles of operations dimensions.In this context, the analysis of the new requirements regarding the integration of the principle of concentration of effort and the rules underlying the dimensioning of the force ratio in operations represents a subject of interest. This approach is also significant in the context of Romania’s military transformation, which is geared towards a qualitative shift in emphasis over the quantitative one. Consequently, the assessment of the prospective realization of the fundamental tenets of the aforementioned operations yields valuable insights that can be leveraged by military planners irrespective of the operational scale.

Institutional change of the Colombian army 2012–2021

ABSTRACT Military transformations occur reactively in response to changes in environmental conditions and conflicts. Likewise, military transformations show a tendency to copy the best practices of the most powerful forces and of organizations like North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). However, little is known about the effect of a proactive planning strategy on the transformation process. This article raises the theoretical debate on the institutional change of the Colombian Army, presenting evidence that allows us to define whether it has been carried out in a reactive, evolutionary way or with a design-based approach which would lead to the development of institutional work through the modification of the factors of military capabilities. The main result shows the presence of institutional work to generate disruptions in the Army. Particularly when altering the doctrine, changes in education and training are triggered, which allows the organizational structure to be redesigned to adopt new practices. However, limitations in the acquisition and deployment of new technologies and infrastructure inhibit institutional change and organizational transformation.

TURKEY AS A NEW SECURITY ACTOR IN THE HORN OF AFRICA

Due to having unique geographical location, the Horn of Africa is one of the most important strategic regions in the world. Thanks to the geo-political and the geo-economic importance of the region, global and regional actors have continuously maintained their strategic relations with this region throughout history. Despite the existence of structural political, economic, and security crises in the region, significant political and economic transformation has emerged throughout the region after the 2000s. This study argues whether Turkey’s increasing security cooperation with the Horn of Africa has contributed to the political, economic and military transformation of the countries in the region. Since 2011, Turkey has implemented a multi-faceted and proactive foreign policy to strengthen its strategic relations with the Horn of Africa. This article found that that Turkey’s lack of a history of exploitation and active humanitarian aid policy of Turkey in Africa have paved the way for the emergence of the establishment of strong and long-term strategic partnerships with the countries in the Horn of Africa.

STUDY ON THE THREATS, VULNERABILITIES AND RISKS OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE ROMANIAN ARMY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DEFENSE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

States seeking strategic superiority through technological superiority must go through a substantial organizational transformation that increases adaptability. Today, states move from technological to strategic superiority by achieving organizational superiority. Organizational transformations translate superior technology into superior strategic performance because the organization is itself a form of technology. Moreover, the importance of organizational change increases during periods of technological innovation. In order to face the common challenges in the Euro-Atlantic space, the Romanian Army works persistently to outline its profile in the allied plan, through increasingly active and consistent participation in NATO decisions, measures and missions, with a view to solving conflicts and crises, in different areas of the world, to the fight against international terrorism, and at the same time to the perpetuation of the military transformation process.

ISAF and European military transformation: German, Swedish and French counterinsurgency in Afghanistan, 2003–2014

This article examines the role of a subset of European militaries in responding to the Afghan insurgency during their deployment as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). While part of a multinational coalition, their heterogeneous military transformation was crucial to fighting the insurrection and confronting American pressure. In comparing the counterinsurgency innovations of Germany, Sweden, and France, we find that Germany acted reluctantly, Sweden largely emulated American doctrine, and France became a counterinsurgency pioneer. We argue that these developments took time and were accompanied by conflicts within ISAF and between the respective national military and political leaderships.

Копейный бой в военном искусстве калмыков и джунгар XVII – начала XIX вв.

Introduction. The article examines the features of the formation and evolution of the Oirat light cavalry armed with spears of the Late Middle Ages and early Modern times. The purpose of the study is to identify the role of spear fighting in the military practice of the Dzungars and Kalmyks of the XVII – early XIX centuries on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of written, pictorial and material sources. Results. It has been established that in the Central Asian region for centuries shock spears and pikes remained mainly the weapons of armored cavalry, while light nomads without armor used them only sporadically. During the military transformations carried out by the Oirat and Mongol military leaders of the second half of the XVI–XVII centuries, mounted archers were equipped with shock spears and pikes, which led to the emergence of a new type of cavalry composed of lightly armed spearmen capable of conducting both remote and close combat. During the military campaigns of the Oirats, which covered most of steppe Eurasia, the idea of mass light cavalry with spears was adopted by many peoples of the Great Steppe, including Russian Cossacks and Turks of Eastern Europe (Nogais, Crimean and Polish-Lithuanian Tatars). In turn, the battle on the spears of the Polish-Lithuanian Tatars (Lipkov) formed the basis of the military practice of the Polish lancers, which became a model of such cavalry for the countries of Central and Western Europe of the XVIII – early XIX centuries. Based on the analysis of Mongolian, Oirat, Ottoman, European and Qing written sources, the original name of the Oirat long–barrel weapon of the XVII–XVIII centuries was revealed, which sounded like “jida” (“dzida”). The design features of the Oirat spears were established, the spear fighting technique and tactics of mounted Kalmyk and Dzungarian warriors armed with spears were reconstructed. Conclusions. The collected materials indicate that spears and pikes were the main type of melee weapons of the Oirat warriors of the XVII – early XIX centuries. Spear fighting was one of the key elements of the military art of the Dzungars and Kalmyks of this period. The Oirats had a significant impact on the development of the practice of equestrian spear fighting among the peoples of Eurasia of the XVII–XVIII centuries.

Sentyivskyi Shantse as a component of the defensive structures of New Serbia: Historical and archaeological aspects

The relevance of the research topic is manifested in the context of the unique geopolitical position of Potyasmynia and the broader region of the “Zadniprovian lands” of the Hetmanate and New Serbia in the mid- to late 18th century. This period was characterised by acute political and military transformations, which led to intensive construction of fortifications, including the Sentyi Shantse. Considering the importance of understanding the historical context and significance of defensive structures in this region, the study of the Sentyi Shantse becomes an essential element in unravelling historical events and processes. The aim of the study is a comprehensive elucidation of the historical significance of the Sentyi Shantse, the stages of its historical existence and fate, relying on the use of historiography, cartography, and archaeology data. In addition to general scientific methods, the authors employed special-historical methods, namely: chronological, historical-typological, and cartographic methods, which allowed for balanced and well-founded research results. The research included a historiographic analysis of scientific works, identifying the specificity and differences in the vectors of shantse research in scientific sources from the second half of the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century and contemporary history. The predominance of the goals of historical anthropology was established. The specificity of the two main periods of studying the Sentyi Shantse in the system of defensive structures of Potyasmynia in the mid- to late 18th century was determined and characterised. Six chronological stages in the history of the shantse were identified and characterised. The results of its archaeological research were introduced into scientific circulation and analysed. The practical value of the work lies in the possibility of applying the research results in the study and writing of works on local history topics, in the preparation of lectures on regional and Ukrainian history, as well as in their use in highlighting the history of the region in museum activities

Rationalising violence: Leros

The paper considers Leros in the Greek Dodecanese as a case study in the history of rationalist architecture of the fascist Italian regime, implicating varied forms of surveillance, exile, detainment, and incarceration. The paper explores the enduring legacy and impact the colonial and military architecture, policy, and planning have had on urban and architectural forms, local labour economies, and the community that continues to the present day. The research spans from the Italian occupation of Leros to the establishment of detention centres for refugees today, following the chronologically overlapping trans-institutional transformation of Italian military and medical infrastructures into notorious mental health care facilities and camps for political prisoners and violently displaced children from mainland Greece. The paper focuses on the relationships established by the plan, the architecture, the strict imposition of gerarchia [hierarchy], as defined elsewhere by Diane Ghirardo, and associated governing frameworks, which established a unique urban form and social fabric. The paper explores not only the aesthetic and formal qualities of the architectural object but also the socio-political diagram embedded in the logic of the ambitious building programme of the Italian occupation. It will further examine the spatial tactics and policies that supported Italian control and, consequently, the gradual erosion of agrarian traditions and capabilities of the local population, forcing them into a complex co-dependence. It is precisely the interdependence and co-existence of architecture and labour that perpetuates the island’s role as an apparatus of control, creating a carceral campus of surveillance and exile.

Molecular dynamics study of diffusionless phase transformations in HMX: β-HMX twinning and β-ɛ phase transition

We use molecular dynamics to study the mechanism of deformation twinning of β-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (β-HMX) in the P21/n space group setting for the twin system specified by K1=(101), η1=[101¯], K2=(101¯), and η2=[101] at T=1 and 300 K. Twinning of a single perfect crystal was induced by imposing increasing stress. The following three forms of stress were considered: uniaxial compression along [001], shear stress in the K1 plane along the η1 direction, and shear stress in the K2 plane along the η2 direction. In all cases, the crystal transforms to its twin by the same mechanism: as the stress increases, the a and c lattice parameters become, respectively, longer and shorter; soon after the magnitude of a exceeds that of c the system undergoes a quick phase-transition-like transformation. This transformation can be approximately separated into two stages: glide of the essentially intact {101} crystal planes along ⟨101¯⟩ crystal directions followed by rotations of all HMX molecules accompanied by N-NO2 and CH2 group rearrangements. The overall process corresponds to a military transformation. If uniaxial compression along [001] is applied to a β-HMX crystal which is already subject to a hydrostatic pressure ≳10 GPa, the transformation described above proceeds through the crystal-plane gliding stage but only minor molecular rearrangements occurs. This results in a high-pressure phase of HMX which belongs to the P21/n space group. The coexistence curve for this high-pressure phase and β-HMX is constructed using the harmonic approximation for the crystal Hamiltonians.

Indigenous Military Reforms from the Outside: The Paradox of the UAE Armed Forces Modernisation

ABSTRACT In the past two decades, the United Arab Emirates has pursued the goal of its military modernization through various reforms that were driven by the aspirations of its rulers for self-sufficiency and strategic autonomy. This meant a greater emphasis on building local skills and resources allowing Abu Dhabi to claim the indigenous character of that transformation. A stronger focus on indigenous capacities implied a decrease of that country’s dependence on Western patronage. However, the study of the Emirati military transformation reveals a complex and somewhat contradictory reality: the push for a local military reform still relying for the most part on foreign advisors. This article argues that this transformation may have strengthened the technical effectiveness of the Emirati military apparatus, but it did so, not by abandoning past ties to Western powers, but merely by adapting these ties. In fact, the “Emiratisation” of the country’s national security relied on the use of foreign expertise at all levels: from the training and education of officers to the command of military elite units and the development of local military industries. Such reliance on outside expertise eventually compromises the initial goal of the UAE for greater autonomous capability.

Singapore’s ’Total Defence’ Strategy

ABSTRACT Singapore launched its Total Defence strategy in 1984. It was one of the first countries in the modern era to enact such a policy based on an expanded interpretation of national security. Conventionally defence equates to military security, but for Singapore this approach was too limiting. There was a recognition that defence and development were intertwined and accordingly the authorities sought to exploit the synergies from adopting an integrative security approach. Total Defence thus emerged, manifesting itself as a blend of soft ‘social resilience’ elements designed to foster collectivism and national identity, and the harder industrial and technological dynamics of ‘defence capability’. The resulting civil-military overlay, along with the government’s imperative to push the boundaries of innovational endeavour, has enabled Singapore to achieve a remarkable cultural, economic and military transformation. In the process, it has achieved rapid expansion of both defence ‘and’ development, leaving most other contemporary post-colonial states in its wake. Yet, the uncertain and turbulent global environment over recent years has revealed possible emerging fault lines in the Total Defence model that the Singaporean authorities would be well advised to heed, and, if possible, resolve.

Where the Second World War in Europe Broke Out: The Landscape History of Westerplatte, Gdańsk/Danzig

The article describes the landscape history of the Westerplatte Peninsula in Gdańsk (Poland) from the 17th to the 20th century presented as a complex process of the landscape’s environmental, urban and military transformations. Westerplatte is known as the symbolic place where the Second World War in Europe broke out, and for this reason the current discourse is mainly concentrated on that period. Nonetheless, the history of Westerplatte includes many other important events involving Polish, German, Russian and even French politics over the last three centuries. Thanks to its location at the entrance of one of the main harbours on the Baltic Sea, it is cartographically the best-documented part of the Vistula river estuary. A comprehensive archival survey conducted in the Polish and German archives and cartographical analysis of over 200 selected historical maps allowed the authors to reconstruct its spatial history over three centuries. This case study of Westerplatte can be regarded as an example of the research modus operandi of a historical landscape which has been transformed multiple times. It might form the basis for establishing a new policy for its preservation, allowing a balance to be kept between fluctuations of the current historical politics and more universal requirements for the protection of tangible and intangible heritage. The article also stresses the importance of a holistic and interdisciplinary approach in the analysis of a historical landscape and the necessity of proper selection and critical verification of sources.

Navigating China’s Military Modernization

Nepal has repeatedly experienced the lurching effects of the increased tension between China and India. Consequently, both countries have engaged in rigorous military modernization and securitization techniques. The emerging context has posed a question of how Nepal can adopt a military strategy. The capacity of a small power to curtail the reeling effect of the tension between the great power depends on its security preparedness policy. Historical military strategists require any country (powerful or weak) to conduct meticulous research about the opponent or the potential opponents’ military strength before devising any military defense or offense. Acknowledging India’s dominant position in the region and its overwhelming military engagement with the small powers in South Asia, the scholarly discourse on India’s military capacity is voluminous. However, only a few studies have examined China’s military modernization in the new era under President Xi Jinping and what it connotes to the small powers in the south. In this regard, the paper conducted a detailed analysis of China's military transformation under President Xi Jinping. The findings show that China's military organization has adopted a centralized reform mechanism, and its armed forces have been equipped with advanced technological ammunition to build a “World Class Army.” Such a powerful buildup in the northern front makes it imperative for Nepal to rethink its security preparedness policy to deter the spillover effect of the conflict between the great powers in the region or beyond.

Engines of power: Electricity, AI, and general-purpose, military transformations

AbstractMajor theories of military innovation focus on relatively narrow technological developments, such as nuclear weapons or aircraft carriers. Arguably the most profound military implications of technological change, however, come from more fundamental advances arising from ‘general-purpose technologies’ (GPTs), such as the steam engine, electricity, and the computer. Building from scholarship on GPTs and economic growth, we argue that the effects of GPTs on military effectiveness are broad, delayed, and shaped by indirect productivity spillovers. We label this impact pathway a ‘general-purpose military transformation’ (GMT). Contrary to studies that predict GPTs will rapidly diffuse to militaries around the world and narrow gaps in capabilities, we show that GMTs can reinforce existing balances if leading militaries have stronger linkages to a robust industrial base in the GPT than challengers. Evidence from electricity's impact on military affairs, covering the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, supports our propositions about GMTs. To probe the explanatory value of our theory and account for alternative interpretations, we compare findings from the electricity case to the military impacts of submarine technology, a non-GPT that emerged in the same period. Finally, we apply our findings to contemporary debates about artificial intelligence, which could plausibly cause a profound GMT.

Military Transformations in Sweden and Norway During the Swedish-Norwegian Conflict on the Turn of the 19th — 20th Centuries (According to the Russian Diplomatic Correspondence)

The arms race that unfolded at the turn of the 19th — 20th centuries in Sweden and Norway coincided with the development of the crisis in Swedish-Norwegian relations. Norway's struggle within the framework of the union with Sweden to expand its rights and gain greater independence led to an increase in discontent in public and political circles in Sweden, and the increasing pace of modernization of the armed forces of both countries generated mutual suspicions, rumors and accusations of purposeful activities against the “fraternal people”. Relying on the documents of the Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire, in particular on the reports of Russian diplomats who carefully observed the course of the conflict and carefully described all the events on the pages of their reports, the question is raised whether it is possible to talk about the Swedish-Norwegian conflict as the main reason for military reforms, whether the measures taken by the two countries were exclusively directed against each other. It can be concluded, to which Norwegian researchers also come, that the military buildup by Sweden and Norway at the turn of the 19th — 20th centuries was the result of a complex of reasons: firstly, it occurred in the context of the pan-European process of strengthening the armament of European states, and secondly, it was closely related to the growth of Norwegian nationalism and was perceived as part of the on national identity, characteristic of that time and thirdly, was in close interaction and influenced by the problems associated with the constitutional crisis of 1890—1905.

The Long Century of the Ottoman Weapons: Transformation of the Equipment of the Ottoman Ground Forces during the Modernization of the 19th Century

The paper explores the development of the material and technical basis of the Ottoman ground forces during the period of a widescale modernization and implementation of Western technical innovations (1826—1880). The paper scrutinizes the activities of the most important Ottoman industrial centers, which provided all kinds of troops with necessary supplies, and firearm purchases from Belgium, Great Britain, France and the USA. The source base of the research includes a wide range of works of the Ottoman historians and military leaders, books of the British and French authors and archive materials containing the notes of the Russian military informers. The multifaceted analysis of the Ottoman military transformations revealed a controversial nature of the modernization. On the one hand, the reformers successfully accomplished the rearmament programme. By the end of the reforms the majority of the Ottoman regular troops had possessed the latest British and American rifles and cannons manufactured by Krupp factory. On the other hand, the modernization of the equipment and industrial centers worsened the financial position of the Ottoman Empire and caused a rapid growth of the military expenditures that composed a significant part of the Ottoman state debt. Several unsuccessful attempts of organization of the military production strengthened the dependence of the Ottoman empire on imports from Europe and America. The technological progress chase increased the Ottoman military potential, however its cost weakened economic and, as a consequence, political position of the state.

Review: Tree of Pearls: The Extraordinary Architectural Patronage of the 13th-Century Egyptian Slave-Queen Shajar al-Durr

Review: <i>Tree of Pearls: The Extraordinary Architectural Patronage of the 13th-Century Egyptian Slave-Queen Shajar al-Durr</i>

Governance of Digital Transformation: As observed in two cases of military transformations

The transformation of a modern socio-technical system is challenging. Notably, the digital transformation of an enterprise's business or operational model is an arduous journey toward success. Recent studies illustrate that 70% of business enterprise digital transformations fall short of their objectives. Without revenue-based performance indicators, the digital transformations of military organisations are, if possible, even more challenging. However, governance methods should assist in the complex transformation of interrelated features like human behaviour, business processes, information, data, and technology. Are they applied, and how feasible the standard Information and Communications Technology (ICT) governance methods are in supporting digital transformation in the defence sector?&#x0D; &#x0D; The paper studies how feasible the contemporary ICT -governance methods are for military organisations while executing digital transformation. The research implements the action research method since the researcher has participated in two journeys of military transformation. First, a review of these two cases shows the military utilisation of the governance methods and models. Second, the standard methods are reflected against the most challenging transformation problems to see if they could provide support. Third, the methods are challenged by the range of variety in complex system transformations to test their flexibility.&#x0D; &#x0D; Based on the research on two digital transformations, military enterprises seem to fall short in applying central ICT governance standards and methods. Therefore, they are not getting the best available support. Secondly, the contemporary governance methods do not address all the pain points in military transformation. Hence, the utilisation degree and transformation benefits are not well correlated. Thirdly, modern governance tools are inflexible in addressing various situations, transformation goals, and organisational maturity. In summary, the research surfaces some new gaps within the contemporary ICT governance toolbox when applied to the complex socio-technical transformation in the defence sector.

Military transformation and planning based in the Capacity of the Reconversion Process in the Argentine Army

Military transformation and planning based in the Capacity of the Reconversion Process in the Argentine Army

The influence of Turkish domestic transformations on Turkish–U.S. relations: Ideology, identity, military

Turkish-US relations in the last decade have been marked by tensions, crises and mutual distrust, which is unprecedented in the framework of bilateral relations. Besides international systemic variables, domestic ones are also crucial in Turkey’s current foreign policy. Therefore, in order to fully consider the ongoing transformations in the field of foreign policy and for a more comprehensive coverage of the existing tensions in Turkish-American relations, their grounds, it is necessary to explore domestic variables. In this case, we explore the impact of Turkish unit-level variables – ideological-identity and military transformations and their impact on Turkish-US relations.