Transesterification Reaction Of Soybean Oil Research Articles

Indirect Measurement of Variables in a Heterogeneous Reaction for Biodiesel Production.

This research focuses on the development of a state observer for performing indirect measurements of the main variables involved in the soybean oil transesterification reaction with a guishe biochar-based heterogeneous catalyst; the studied reaction takes place in a batch reactor. The mathematical model required for the observer design includes the triglycerides' conversion rate, and the reaction temperature. Since these variables are represented by nonlinear differential equations, the model is linearized around an operation point; after that, the pole placement and linear quadratic regulator (LQR) methods are considered for calculating the observer gain vector L(x). Then, the estimation of the conversion rate and the reaction temperature provided by the observer are used to indirectly measure other variables such as esters, alcohol, and byproducts. The observer performance is evaluated with three error indexes considering initial condition variations up to 30%. With both methods, a fast convergence (less than 3 h in the worst case) of the observer is remarked.

Experimental and Simulation Studies for Purification and Etherification of Glycerol from the Biodiesel Industry

In this study, a purification route was applied to crude glycerol and its valorization via etherification was evaluated. Crude glycerol samples were obtained through transesterification reactions of soybean oil with methanol using potassium hydroxide as catalyst. A set of separation steps (acidification, neutralization, salt precipitation, evaporation and removal of contaminants using ion-exchange resins) was performed for purification of crude glycerol. The glycerol contents of crude samples were 46% wt., and for purified samples they were above 98% wt. The etherification reactions were carried out with purified samples and different alcohols (ethanol, isopropanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol) placed into a batch reactor, using a small amount of Amberlyst 15 as a catalyst, with autogenous pressure and solvent-free conditions. The glycerol conversion, selectivity and yield to ethers were evaluated. A glycerol conversion of up to 97% wt. was obtained when using ethanol. For isopropanol, the glycerol conversion rate was 85% (97.1% of monoether and 2.8% of diether). However, the selectivity to ethers for 3-methyl-1-butanol was negligible (<3% wt.). A process simulation for the purification and etherification steps integrated with a biodiesel production process was assessed in terms of productivity and energy consumption, considering different scenarios of glycerol/alcohol molar ratios. Finally, main impacts on the overall energy consumption were evaluated for the purification processes (glycerol and ethers).

Lubricity Performance of Ethylene Glycol Ester from Soybean Oil as a Lubricity Enhancer Bio-Additive for Low-Sulfur Diesel Fuel

The present study aims to show the tribological properties of soybean oil's ethylene glycol ester (SOEGE) and its effect on low-sulfur diesel fuel lubrication. The SOEGE or 2-hydroxyethyl ester was synthesized by a transesterification reaction of soybean oil and ethylene glycol with a potassium carbonate catalyst. The product was characterized using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Then, the lubricity of commercial diesel fuel (Pertadex) and SOEGE were tested alone using the High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) machine. Its mixture form with various product doses in Pertadex (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1% v/v) was also tested with the same apparatus. This study showed that the product's coefficient of friction and Wear Scar Diameters (WSD) were 0.057 and 154.4 m, respectively. This value is lower than Pertadex and Fatty Acids Methyl Ester (FAME) of Soybean oil from the literature. Furthermore, adding products into Pertadex can reduce the coefficient of friction and WSD of Pertadex. The Pertadex coefficient of friction was reduced from 0.161 to 0.135 after the addition of 0.8% product. At a concentration of 1% product, WSD Pertadex was successfully reduced by 39.42%. These phenomena imply that ester ethylene glycol has an excellent lubricating effect on low-sulfur diesel. This work's findings open opportunities for other researchers to develop alternative lubricating bio-additives for low-sulfur diesel through the in-depth study of tribochemistry or tribosurface.

Fluidized Bed Reactor Type : Reactor Design for Biodiesel Production from SoyBean Oil Using MgO Catalyst

Biodiesel is one of the solutions to future energy problems. One of the abundant biodiesel raw materials in Indonesia is soybean. This study aims to optimize the yield of biodiesel made from soybean oil by selecting the reactor design. This research method uses literature study and thermodynamic calculations from the transesterification reaction of soybean oil and methanol using a MgO catalyst to determine which type of reactor optimizes biodiesel yield. The type of reactor that can help optimize the yield of MgO biodiesel catalyst is a fluidized bed reactor type with an exothermic reaction and a negative Hf value. There is a higher product concentration than the reaction concentration in the scene because the rate constant is higher than one (K > 1), i.e. 1.312. The results of this study are expected to provide information in optimizing the yield of biodiesel from soybean oil.

Development of reusable composite eggshell-moringa leaf catalyst for biodiesel production

A reusable heterogeneous composite catalyst was prepared from mixtures of poultry eggshells and moringa leaves for the production of biodiesel (BD). The raw materials were mixed using a micro ball mill for 4 h and then calcinated at a temperature of 800 °C for 3 h. The developed catalyst was used to promote the transesterification reaction of soybean oil and methanol to produce BD. The X-ray diffraction results revealed the presence of predominantly CaO after activation at 800 °C. Meanwhile, the individual raw materials showed the presence of alkaline metal oxides such as CaO for the eggshell residue and Ca(OH)2, MgO and CaO for the moringa leaves. The catalyst has a surface area of 5.3 m2 g−1 and appreciably high basicity of 4.95 mmol/g, which tailored the transesterification reaction. Under the best reaction conditions of 2 wt% catalyst loading, 12:1 methanol to soybean oil molar ratio and a reaction temperature of 65 °C, 94.3% of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield was achieved in 78 min. The heterogeneous catalyst can be reused for 9 consecutive cycles with a slight decrease in activity due to leaching. The biodiesel produced meets the international quality standards of ASTM D-6751 and EN 14214. In conclusion, a combination of agro-waste sources could promote stability in the reaction medium and effectively catalyze the BD production.

Optimization and kinetics of biodiesel production from soybean oil using new tetraethylammonium ionic liquids with amino acid-based anions as catalysts

By using amino acids (AAs) as anions, eleven ionic liquids composed of tetraethylammonium (N2222) as a cation were synthesized, namely, [N2222][AA]s. Their structures were characterized by FT-IR and NMR. The alkalinity of the synthesized AAILs was measured using a pH meter. In the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol, tetraethylammonium arginine ([N2222][Arg]) presented the best catalytic capability. The optimal reaction conditions for the transesterification reaction of soybean oil to achieve 98.4% biodiesel conversion were a methanol/oil of 10:1 mol/mol, reaction temperature of 100 °C, catalyst dosage of 20 wt% (based on the oil weight) and reaction time of 60 min. The kinetics study was evaluated and followed the pseudo-first order reaction mechanism, and the activation energy and pre-exponential factor were 34.53 kJ/mol and 1.21 × 104 min−1, respectively. [N2222][Arg] is a promising, operationally simple, sustainable, biodegradable and possibly renewable catalyst for the conversion of vegetable oil or animal fat into biodiesel.

PRODUCTION CHARACTERIZATION AND TESTING OF SOYBEAN BIODIESEL IN A DIESEL CYCLE ENGINE

The characteristics of the biodiesel produced by the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with anhydrous ethanol, catalyzed by sodium hydroxide and its thermo-oxidative stability, were investigated by thermal analysis and viscosity. It was analyzed density at 20 °C, sulfur content, cetane number, carbon residue, iodine index, acidity, sulphated ash, the total content of glycerin and unreacted fatty acids. The synthesis of biodiesel via ethanolic processed in a Pyrex glass reactor with 2/1 molar ratio triglyceride/anhy-drous ethanol and 1% of catalyst, 60 °C. After the reaction, the phases were separated and glycerin was removed. The biodiesel was washed with 0.1M HCl solution, at ~ 70 oC for neutralization. The physicochemical analysis, all parameters for biodiesel met the requirements of the ANP Technical Standards. From the produced biodiesel, binary mixtures were made with diesel in the proportions of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30%. The objective was to study the behavior of mixtures in a diesel cycle engine coupled to a dynamometer of Eddy Current. In this study of burning biodiesel blends in diesel engine were analyzed and compared with pure diesel parameters: consumption, efficiency, performance, torque and power. The results showed that the mixtures had very similar properties and performance to pure diesel by mixing 20%. To the mixture with 30% there has been a significant drop in torque and power and slight increase in consumption. Thus, it was shown that soybean oil biodiesel, mixtures of 2% to 30%, is applicable as an alternative fuel aptly, for the diesel cycle engines, because it is a renewable and environmentally friendly fuel.

Production of Biodiesel from Soybean Oil in Less Time and at Low Temperature

The heterogeneous catalyst plays an important role in the production of biodiesel at industrial level. In present work, the utilization of wollastonite as a heterogeneous catalyst is attempted to explore its non-biomedical application. Wollastonite was synthesized by using the auto combustion method and L-alanine was used as a fuel for combustion. The X-ray diffraction pattern reveals the phase purity of wollastonite. The Fourier transform infrared spectra of the calcined precursor show the presence of characteristics functional groups in wollastonite. To evaluate the catalytic ability of the prepared wollastonite, transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol was performed. Following the reaction, the biodiesel, glycerol and the catalyst were separated by centrifugation. Optimization of the percentage of catalyst used in biodiesel production was done by using various quantities of catalyst during the transesterification reaction and subjecting the produced biodiesel to gas chromatography. It can be concluded that combined alkali metal oxide and silica in wollastonite has assisted in production of biodiesel (82.6%) in a less time and at a low temperature.

Biodiesel Production by Transesterification of Soybean Oil with Ethanol using SBA-15 and Al-SBA-15 Catalysts

Background: Increasing environmental pollution generated by fossil fuel consumption has intensified the consumption and development of renewable fuels. Objective: Thus, the aim of this work was to investigate the use of heterogeneous catalysts (SBA- 15 and Al-SBA-15) for the transesterification of soybean oil to produce biodiesel. Methods: The pore size and surface acidity of SBA-15 were modified by the addition of heterogeneous Al atoms. Samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction, Nitrogen adsorption, Scanning electron microscopy, Infrared Spectroscopy, and Thermogravimetry. Results: Results of the characterization study evidenced that a large amount of mesopore and surface acidity can significantly improve the transesterification reaction with the incorporation of aluminum into the SBA-15 framework. The best results were obtained with a 24 h reaction time and Al-SBA-15. The transesterification reaction of soybean oil with ethanol during 24 h showed in this work presented an efficient conversion of 85.5% with SBA-15 catalyst and 96.5% with the Al- SBA-15 catalyst.

Synthesis of Bio-additive for Low Sulphur Diesel: Transesterification of Soybean Oil and Ethylene Glycol using K2CO3 Catalyst

The desulphurization process of diesel fuel is carried out to reduce the amount of SO2 emissions that can cause acid rain. However, the desulphurization process in diesel fuel not only removes the sulfur compounds but polyaromatic and polar compounds are also eliminated during this process. The loss of these two compounds can reduce the lubricity properties of diesel fuel. Therefore, it is necessary to add an additive compound that can increase the lubricity properties. In this research, 2-hydroxyethyl ester (HEE) was synthesized as an additive to increase the lubricity of diesel fuel. This compound was synthesized through the transesterification reaction of soybean oil and ethylene glycol with K2CO3 as the base catalyst. The composition of the synthesized additives was analyzed using the Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Based on the results of GC-MS spectrum analysis, it is known that the 2-hydroxyethyl ester compound has been formed with a yield of 66.5% (relative to the area of the chromatogram peak). The HEE compound obtained is a mixture of 2 hydroxyethyl palmitate, 2 hydroxyethyl linoleate, 2 hydroxyethyl stearate, 2 hydroxyethyl arachidonate, 2 hydroxyethyl nervate, and 2 hydroxyethyl behenate.

Study of the Ca2Fe2O5 Perovskite Synthesis from Waste Sources and Application as Heterogeneous Catalyst For Biodiesel Production

The use of chicken eggshells and ferrous metal waste were evaluated as feedstock for the synthesis of Ca2Fe2O5 perovskite. The solid Ca2Fe2O5 obtained was applied as heterogeneous catalyst in the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol for biodiesel production. The calcium ferrite (Ca2Fe2O5) obtained from waste materials was formed at temperatures above 898 K and its basic force was very similar to that one presented in the same structure obtained using high-purity reagents. The formation of the Ca2Fe2O5/CaO system occurred for both catalysts at higher temperatures. The catalysts Ca2Fe2O5lab and Ca2Fe2O5res presented the same basic strength, 0.469 and 0.473 mmol/g, respectively. This fact indicates that both cata- lysts have similar structures even though they were prepared with very different origins of reagents. Besides that, the residual Ca2Fe2O5 perovskite showed a good catalytic performance in the transesterification reaction. The transesterification reaction led to yields of biodiesel greater than 80 %, at 333 K, methanol to oil molar ratio of 3:1 and 10 h of batch reaction.

Crude Glycerol/Guishe Based Catalysts for Biodiesel Production: Conforming a Guishe Biorefinery

Biodiesel production imposes some challenges, such as the crude glycerol management and cleaning requirements of biodiesel produced by homogeneous transesterification. Heterogeneous catalysts based on residual biomass have been proposed to tackle these challenges; in addition, biomass revalorization is fundamental for biorefineries development. In this research, two organic wastes (crude glycerol and guise) are used to synthesize carbonaceous catalysts. Four catalysts, with different crude glycerol/guishe proportions, were prepared by pyrolysis at 800 and 900 °C, followed by a chemical functionalization with H2SO4. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) were used to characterize the catalysts. The performance of the catalysts was evaluated in a soybean oil transesterification reaction. The crude glycerol/guishe based catalysts lead to similar biodiesel yields than the obtained with a conventional homogeneous catalyst (CH3NaO). The catalyst identified as BS-25-8 (a mixture of 25% guishe and 75% crude glycerol, pyrolyzed at 800 °C and sulfonated), in a proportion of 1 wt%, achieved the highest fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) yield (99%) in the transesterification reaction, even surpassing the performance of the CH3NaO (yield of 93%).

Composite catalytic materials based on k-carrageenan and CaO used on the transesterification of soybean oil for the process of biodiesel obtention

Composite materials based on CaO obtained from egg shells and k-carrageenan, an anionic sulfated linear polysaccharide obtained from red seaweeds was used as an efficient, environmentally friendly heterogeneous catalyst for the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol at 60 °C.The different composite samples were produced through the dissolution of the biopolymer in an ionic liquid (IL) derived from imidazolium ion and by further addition of CaO. The samples were characterized by Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Termogravimetry (TGA). The materials exhibit an internal structure consisting of meso and macropores which widen with the addition of small amounts of Hexamethylene diisocyanate (HMDI) that acts as a crosslinker. The composite materials present a similar thermal behaviour to k-carrageenan, without loss of stability.The catalytic activity of the prepared composite materials was evaluated in the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol through catalytic runs in batch conditions. It was found that both CaO loading and polymer cross-linking affect the sorption capacity and the transport properties of the prepared catalytic materials, with best results obtained for the intermediate CaO concentration in membrane and a lower crosslinking degree.

Theoretical verification of photonic crystals sensor for biodiesel detection and sensing

Among the two past decades, the biodiesel fuels received a significant attention due to its lower hydrocarbon emissions and low sulfur diesel. However, the incomplete transesterification represents the main problem for the possibility of wider use. Thus, we present in this research a new method for detecting and measuring of methyl ester biodiesel fuel based on its optical characteristics. The proposed sensor is designed using the well-known one dimensional photonic crystals. The cornerstone of our idea is mainly based on two sides. First, the inclusion of methyl ester as a defect layer inside the one dimensional photonic crystals gives rise to the formation of a resonant peak within the photonic band gap. Second, the concentration of the converted methyl ester due to the transesterification reaction of soybean oil is closely related to its refractive index. Therefore, the sensing and detection procedure is essentially based on the dependence of the characteristics of the resonant peak on the concentration of the biodiesel fuel. The parameters that refer to the performance of our sensor such as, the sensitivity, figure of merit and the detection limit are investigated. Moreover, the effect of the defect layer thickness and the angle of incidence on the performance of our sensor is demonstrated. The numerical results show that our design could provide high sensitivity of 136 nm RIU−1 and figure of merit 2240 RIU–1. In addition to that, it could differentiate between the different biodiesel fuels despite the very limited difference between their indices of refraction.

The influence of modified soybean oil as processing aids in tire application

Rubber process oils (RPOs) are generally incorporated to rubber compounds for improving processability and also state-of-mix in some circumstances, for example; in the formulations having relatively high filler content. The aim of this work is to prepare the modified soybean oil (MSO) via transesterification reaction of soybean oil (SO) with benzyl alcohol. The success of modification was evidenced by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). After modification, the new absorption peaks at 3020 cm−1 and 750 cm−1 corresponding to –CH stretching vibration and C–H out-of-plane of aromatic were observed. 1H-NMR result also shows the signal of proton in aromatic ring at 7.40–7.55 ppm confirming the presence of aromatic ring in SO. The prepared MSO was then used as rubber processing oil (RPO) in tread compound formulation, and its performance was compared with unmodified SO, distillate aromatic extract oil (DAE) and treated distillate aromatic extract oil (TDAE). The incorporation of RPOs demonstrated cure retardation with a minimal magnitude found in the MSO-filled system. However, the addition of RPOs decreased the mechanical properties, i.e., hardness, modulus, tensile strength and tear strength. Among the studied RPOs, SO showed the poorest performance in terms of rubber mechanical properties, whereas MSO gave the rubber vulcanizate with comparable mechanical properties to DAE and TDAE. Similar to DAE and TDAE, the addition of MSO resulted in the improved wet grip with the sacrifice of rolling resistance.

Study of thermal transformations in Na,Ca-based catalysts supported on activated carbon and their application in the synthesis of biodiesel from soybean oil

Abstract Catalysts containing Na and Ca compounds dispersed in a porous carbon support were prepared by a wet chemical route followed by heat treatments and their catalytic performance in the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol was investigated. The chemical composition and the structural properties of the Na,Ca-based catalysts were modified by means of heat treatments at temperatures ranging from 500 to 800 °C. The chemical nature of the Na,Ca-containing phases was studied by X-ray diffraction and solid-state 23Na nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, among other methods. The as-prepared material was found to be composed of a mixture of Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3; the heat treatment at 500 °C led to the formation of the double carbonate, Na2CO3.CaCO3, whereas at high temperatures the dominant phases were CaO and Na2CO3. The best catalytic efficiency was achieved for the catalysts prepared at 700 and 800 °C. An important advantage of the prepared catalysts was the low concentration of Ca and Na leached into the produced biodiesel samples. It was found that the best heat treatment temperatures to prevent metal leaching were 700 and 800 °C. These results show that the simple method of wet impregnation followed by heat treatments is an efficient route for the production of carbon-supported Na,Ca-based catalysts with high porosity, good catalytic efficiency and that allow the synthesis of biodiesel samples with low metal contents.

Na,Ca-based catalysts supported on activated carbon for synthesis of biodiesel from soybean oil

Different catalysts containing CaO particles dispersed in commercial activated carbon were prepared by wet impregnation followed by heat treatments. The catalytic efficiency of the prepared materials was investigated by evaluating their performance in biodiesel production by the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol. The catalysts were prepared by three different routes; the first two routes involved the use of co-precipitation, with Ca(NO3)2·4H2O as the source of calcium and either NaOH (route 1) or NH4OH (route 2) as the precipitating agent, which were mixed with the activated carbon in aqueous suspension; in the third method (route 3), NaOH and CaO were directly mixed with the activated carbon in aqueous suspension. In all cases, the as-prepared materials were heat-treated at 800 °C for 3 h under argon flow. The best catalytic efficiency was achieved for the Na,Ca-based catalyst prepared by route 3, which was mainly composed of a mixture of CaO and Na2CO3 crystals dispersed in the porous carbon network. Catalytic recycling tests were also performed to evaluate the possibility of catalyst reuse, which revealed a drop in efficiency after 3 cycles; however the reused catalysts still showed significant activity, attributed to the permanence of Na+ ions within the porous carbon structure. Analysis of the Ca and Na contents in biodiesel samples synthesized in the three reaction cycles revealed low concentrations of metals; in the case of Ca, the concentration leached into the biodiesel after the 3rd cycle was 9 times lower than that of a biodiesel sample synthesized using pure CaO. The results obtained showed that the chosen methodology is a promising route for the development of heterogeneous carbon-supported Na,Ca-based catalysts with considerable surface area and good catalytic efficiency in the transesterification reaction for biodiesel production.

Kinetic study of the transesterification reaction by artificial neural networks and parametric particle swarm optimization

In this work, the mechanism of soybean oil transesterification reaction was investigated by Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), and the reaction progress was monitored by Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) using Self-Organizing Maps (SOM). The PSO was used to adjust the values of the reaction rate constants (kn) in the four proposed mechanisms/models approaches. The mean error values obtained by the PSO method showed a good agreement between the experimental and simulated data for all evaluated approaches, ranging from 4.3 to 8.5%. The results suggest that under the evaluated conditions reverse reactions may be disregarded, following a second-order kinetic model for the three stepwise reactions. The SOM proved to be an efficient tool for exploring data obtained during the transesterification process, allowed to organize the data in the form of clusters presenting in the weight maps the relationship between the monitored variables during the progress of the transesterification reaction. The PSO and ANN type SOM has been shown efficient tools for investigating the kinetics of the transesterification reaction, and they offer good perspectives for further kinetic studies of other types of industrial processes.

Mathematical Modeling of the Transesterification Reaction by Finite Elements: Optimization of Kinetic Parameters Using the Simplex Sequential Method

The use of biodiesel as fuel has been presented as a viable alternative in the search for renewable energies. It can be produced from the transesterification reaction of vegetable oils with methanol in the presence of sodium or potassium hydroxide as catalysts. In the present research, the transesterification reaction of soybean oil was modeled considering the three steps of the direct and reverse reactions following a second order general kinetics by the finite element method using the COMSOL Multiphysics® software. The values of rate constants were determined using the simplex optimization method coupled with the desirability functions. The optimized rate constants for the forward reactions were 0.250 × 10−6 (k1f), 1.137 × 10−6 (k2f) and 3.134 × 10−6 (k3f); and for the reverse reactions were 0.202 × 10−6 (k1r), 0.884 × 10−6 (k2r) and 0.219 × 10−6 (k3r) all in m3mol−1s−1. The kinetic model proposed for the reaction can be simulated by the finite element method (FEM) under realistic conditions.

Kinetika Reaksi Transesterifikasi Minyak Kedelai Menjadi Biodiesel dengan Katalis CaO

The use of biodiesel is expected to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. In this study, the kinetic reaction of transesterification of soybean oil with methanol will be assessed using heterogeneous CaO solid base catalyst with parameters of mole ratio of reactants to the conversion of methyl ester used to determine the reaction velocity equation. The reaction speed equation is used in the design of a fluidized CSTR (Continues Tank Reactor) reactor to obtain the reactor volume and catalyst weight. The purpose of this study was to determine the form of the velocity reaction equation for soybean and methanol transesterification reactions using CaO catalyst and determine the weight of the catalyst needed by using the reaction speed equation. The study was carried out by transesterification of soybean oil and methanol with CaO catalyst with the independent variable mole ratio of reactants while the fixed variable reaction temperature was 60°C, catalyst weight was 3% (% b/v), reaction time was 180 minutes. The results showed that methanol adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst and triglycerides not adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst showed that the mechanism of the catalytic reaction that occurred was the Eley-Rideal mechanism where one of the reactants was adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst. The form of the speed equation for the transesterification reaction of soybean oil and methanol using a CaO catalyst is . The reaction speed equation is used in the design of the reactor, so that the relationship between the weight of the catalyst needed to convert triglycerides to biodiesel and the predicted calculation of the volume of the reactor used can be done.