Transesterification Reaction Conditions Research Articles

The potential of calcium oxide nanocatalyst from chicken eggshells for biodiesel production using chicken fat waste

This research aims to synthesize biodiesel using raw materials from chicken fat waste and a catalyst from eggshells (EGS). The eggshells used as a catalyst were calcined (EGS_calcined) and uncalcined (EGS_uncalcined). The calcination process was carried out at a temperature of 900 °C with a heating rate of 5 °C/minute under static air conditions for 24 h. The X-ray Diffraction diffractogram showed that the calcination process has successfully converted the calcium carbonate compound in the eggshell into calcium oxide. The particle sizes of EGS_uncalcined and EGS_calcined catalysts were 509.2 nm and 2.9 nm, respectively. Chicken fat transesterification reaction conditions were optimized to increase biodiesel yield, including variations in EGS catalyst mass (1–3 % of chicken fat extract (oil) weight), oil and methanol mole ratio (1:5–1:30), temperature (55–75 °C), and reaction time (30–180 min). The EGS catalyst mass conditions, oil and methanol mole ratio, temperature, and reaction time that produced the highest yield (93 %) were 1.5 % (w/w oil), 1:10, 65 °C, and 120 min, respectively. Research showed that the calcined EGS_catalyst performs better than the uncalcined EGS_catalyst.

Microwave-assisted transesterification of sour cherry kernel oil for biodiesel production: comparison with ultrasonic bath-, ultrasonic probe-, and ohmic-assisted transesterification methods

In this study, sour cherry kernel oil was converted to biodiesel by microwave-assisted transesterification. Evaluations were made of several variables, namely, reaction time (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 min), microwave power (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 W), methanol/oil mole ratio (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15), and catalyst (KOH) concentration (0.3%, 0.6%, 0.9%, 1.2%, and 1.5%). The efficiency of fatty acid methyl esters increased in response to lengthier reaction times, greater microwave power, higher methanol/oil mole ratio, and higher catalyst concentrations up to the optimal level. The optimal reaction conditions for microwave-assisted transesterification were 300 W microwave power, 1.2% catalyst concentration, a methanol/oil mole ratio of 1:2, and a reaction time of 4 min. Microwave-assisted transesterification was more effective than ohmic-, magnetic stirrer-, ultrasonic probe-, and ultrasonic bath-assisted transesterification methods. In conclusion, microwave-assisted transesterification can be suggested as a fast, efficient, and economical method compared to other transesterification methods.

Biodiesel production from by extraction of carp fish (Cyprinidae) oil and transesterification using CaO derived from limestone and eggshells as heterogeneous catalysts

The fish market produces a huge amount of fish waste and worsens the ecosystem’s condition when dumping into the environment while the treatment to create ecologically and economically acceptable biodiesel is one possible answer. So, this study evaluates the efficiency of three extraction techniques: Wet rendering, Soxhlet, and enzyme hydrolysis in extracting oil from carp fish. The highest yields of oil extraction were 38.61, 36.25, and 22.38% in the Soxhlet extraction, enzyme hydrolysis extraction, and wet rendering respectively. Raw fish oil’s physical and chemical characteristics were investigated, and GC-MS was used to determine its free fatty acid profile. This investigation also inquired about the preparation of calcium oxide (CaO) that is efficient in producing biodiesel from waste eggshells and limestone which were calcined at 950 °C for 2.5 hr, producing stable and high-purity CaO. XRD and FTIR were used to characterize the prepared catalyst while FESEM analysis of the catalyst’s surface structure and EDX spectra analysis of the catalyst’s elemental composition were both performed. The highest yields were 91.74 and 89.21% obtained using CaO derived from limestone and eggshells respectively. The optimum transesterification reaction conditions were a methanol to oil molar ratio of 9:1, 3.5 wt% CaO catalyst, 60 °C, and 90 min.

Production of Biodiesel from Nonedible Parkia biglobosa Oil under Acidic Condition.

In this study, biodiesel was produced from Parkia biglobosa oil via optimization of transesterification reaction conditions, (methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature, and reaction time) under sulphuric acid catalyst (H2SO4). The oil was first extracted from Parkia biglobosa seeds using the Soxhlet extraction method. The physicochemical properties of the biodiesel were analysed and then compared to international standards. Subsequently, the oil was then used to produce biodiesel at optimized transesterification reaction conditions. The free fatty acid (FFA) content of the oil was 1.61% w/w, while the saponification value (mgKOH/g) was 191.65. The maximum yield (percentage weight) of the biodiesel produced was 93.4% at the maximum transesterification conditions of methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 6 : 1, sulphuric acid catalyst amount of 3 wt%, reaction temperature of 65°C, and reaction time of 1.5 h. The biodiesel produced was within the limits of international standards as per the specification by ASTM D6751 (American standard), EN 14241 (European standard), and Ghana Standard Authority. It was therefore recommended that biodiesel from Parkia biglobosa seed oil under acidic catalytic condition is a potential new substitute for petroleum diesel for commercialization purposes.

Biodiesel Production Catalyzed by Lipase Extract Powder of Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas Candlestick) Seed

This work aimed to evaluate the ability of lipase extract powder obtained from Leonotis nepetifolia seed for enzyme-catalyzed biodiesel production using Leonotis nepetifolia oil, commercial olive oil, and waste cooking oil as substrates. The lipase extract powder showed an enzymatic activity and hydrolysis percentage of 24.7 U/g and 21.31%, respectively, using commercial olive oil as a reference. Transesterification reaction conditions were 40 g of substrate, 34 °C, molar ratio oil: methanol of 1:3, lipase extract powder 20 wt%, phosphates buffer (pH 4.8) 20 wt%, and a reaction time of 8 h. Transesterification yields of 74.5%, 71.5%, and 69.3% for commercial olive oil, waste cooking oil, and Leonotis nepetifolia oil were obtained, respectively. Biodiesel physicochemical parameters were analyzed and compared with the international standards: EN 14214 (European Union) and ASTM D6751 (American Society for Testing and Materials). The biodiesel’s moisture and volatile matter percentages, iodine index, cooper strip corrosion, and methyl esters content conformed to the standards’ specifications. The fatty acid methyl ester content of the vegetable oils showed the presence of methyl oleate after enzyme-catalyzed transesterification. This study reveals that biodiesel production catalyzed by lipase extract powder from Leonotis nepetifolia could be a viable alternative, showing that transesterification yields competitive results.

Rapeseed Oil Transesterification Using 1-Butanol and Eggshell as a Catalyst

Biodiesel can be produced both in homogeneous and heterogeneous ways. Heterogeneous synthesis allows to easily separate catalyst from esters. In this work, eggshells as a heterogeneous catalyst were used for triglyceride transesterification with 1-butanol. Response surface methodology was used for process optimization. It was obtained that eggshells are a suitable catalyst for transesterification processes. A longer process duration and higher catalyst amount have a high influence on ester yield. However, the amount of 1-butanol should not be maximized. Optimum transesterification reaction conditions were obtained when the process temperature was 110 °C, 1-butanol-to-oil molar ratio 11.3:1, eggshells amount 7.41 wt%, and process duration 11.81 h. Under these conditions, 98.78 wt% of ester yield was obtained.

Evaluation of FAU-type Zeolite Membrane Stability in Transesterification Reaction Conditions.

The transesterification conversion of methyl ether can be enhanced by the removal of the byproduct methanol using methanol permselective faujasite (FAU-type) zeolite membranes. However, the authors previously observed that the methanol flux during the transesterification reaction was lower than the predicted flux. Therefore, this study investigated the stability of FAU-type zeolite membranes in the presence of organic components associated with the transesterification reaction of methyl hexanoate and 1-hexanol. The stability was defined in terms of changes in methanol permeance and zeolite structure. The effect of reaction components (methanol, 1-hexanol, methyl hexanoate, and hexyl hexanoate) on the FAU-type zeolite structure and the methanol permeation performance of the FAU-type zeolite membranes were evaluated to find the component causing the lower methanol flux. From these results, two esters were found to adsorb strongly on the FAU-type zeolite. The methanol flux of the FAU-type zeolite membrane was examined after vapor exposure of each of the four reaction chemicals at 373 K for 8 h. In the case of methyl hexanoate and hexyl hexanoate vapor exposure, the methanol flux was reduced by about 75% compared to the initial flux of 15 kg m-2 h-1. These results indicated methanol permeation performance was inhibited by the adsorption of esters.

Synthesis of a Lignin-Enhanced Graphene Aerogel for Lipase Immobilization.

A novel lignin-enhanced graphene aerogel (LGA) was prepared by one-step hydrothermal synthesis, and lipase from Pseudomonas sp. (PSL) was immobilized on LGA successfully by interfacial activation. The catalytic activity and enantioselectivity of LGA-PSL for the preparation of (S)-2-octanol by an enantioselective transesterification were improved obviously. The characterization of LGA and LGA-PSL was performed. X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrated the formation of numerous electrostatic and hydrogen bonds between lignin and graphene in the aerogel structure. In addition, the specific surface area pore size analyzer (BET) test proved that the introduction of lignin significantly increased the specific surface area and pore size of the aerogel material, which improved the immobilization efficiency of lipase in the aerogel. The introduction of lignin has changed the original lamellar structure of the graphene oxide (GO) aerogels. The lignin cross-linked with the GO lamellae through hydrogen bonding, causing a porous structure to form between the original lamellae, thus increasing their specific surface area. The immobilized lipase (LGA-PSL) was used for the preparation of (S)-2-octanol by an enantioselective transesterification, and the reaction conditions for this enzymatic transesterification had been optimized. LGA-PSL exhibited a high catalytic performance and could be reused four times in this reaction. Based on these results, LGA as an immobilization carrier had potential applications in the industrial application of lipase.

Development of heterogeneous catalyst from assorted periwinkle snail shells for sustainable biodiesel synthesis

Owing to the environmental friendliness of biodiesel compared to fossil fuels, its application in internal combustion engines has gained wide recognition. The biodiesel industry requires effective heterogeneous catalysts developed from agricultural biomass/residues due to their overall cost-effectiveness, recoverability, and reusability. Scientific reports on developing active heterogeneous catalysts from periwinkle snail shells for application in transesterification reactions are limited, as there is no evidence of stability test results for the catalyst’s structural and elemental composition analysis. Also, there is a deficit of information on the catalytic effect on biodiesel yields. This research developed a heterogeneous catalyst derived from periwinkle snail shells (PSS) for biodiesel production. Pulverized PSS were sieved through several apertures to separate the samples into different particle sizes, viz. 250 mm, 500mm, and 1000 mm. The samples were calcined in an electric furnace at 500 oC for 3 and 5 hrs. The calcined catalyst samples were characterized using XRD, SEM, and EDS. Purified WCO was transesterified using the CPSS with the highest metallic oxides percentage under different experimental levels. All the CPSS samples exhibited a change in colour and weight loss after the calcination period. XRD observations revealed that calcium oxide (CaO) is the principal constituent of the calcined PSS (CPSS). The results showed that the highest (93%) traces of CaO was found in PSS 500 mm size calcined at 500 oC for 5 hrs. EDS results showed that the same sample had the highest calcium (Ca) composition with a weight percent of 57.38%. The highest biodiesel yield of 94.6% was obtained at optimum conditions of 70 oC reaction temperature, 9:1 molar ratio, 60 minutes reaction period, and catalyst content of 3 wt%. It was observed that biodiesel yields decreased when the catalyst concentration increased beyond 3wt%. Compared to the same amount of homogeneous catalyst, KOH, an average biodiesel yield of 90% was recorded from the same transesterification reaction conditions. The development of heterogeneous catalysts from PSS was established as a cost-effective means of catalyzing transesterification reactions and obtaining high biodiesel yields from WCO with the prospects of possible catalyst recovery and reuse.

Process Optimization for Biodiesel Production and Its Effect on the Performance of Diesel Engines

AbstractThe operating conditions of transesterification reaction for maximum yield of biodiesel from waste cooking oil were optimized by using response surface methodology (RSM) in terms of stoichiometric methanol‐to‐oil ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction time. The RSM model was significant with R2 = 0.99. Gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy certified the formation of methyl ester of most triglycerides. The produced biodiesel was tested in a diesel engine to be compared with biodiesel blends and pure petrodiesel, indicating promising results with regard to performance and emissions.

Efficient synthesis of biodiesel from Hyoscyamus niger L. seed oil by base catalysis

Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) belongs to the genus Hyoscyamus of Solanaceae, and its seeds have a high oil content. To develop new raw materials for biodiesel, we developed Henbane seed oil for the first time to synthesize biodiesel. Fourteen supported solid base catalysts were prepared using γ-Al2O3 and mesoporous SiO2 as carriers, and their catalytic activities were screened. The K2O/γ-Al2O3 is a catalyst with excellent performance, which Hammett indicator titration, BET, SEM, TEM, FT-IR, and TG characterized. The experiment was designed by central composite design (CCD), and the optimum reaction conditions were obtained by response surface methodology (RSM). K2O/γ-Al2O3 was used as a catalyst to investigate the optimal transesterification reaction conditions. The reaction was carried out at 65.48 °C for 174.56 min, the molar ratio of oil to methanol was 1:9.19, and the amount of catalyst was 3.01 wt%. The predicted biodiesel yield was 90.25%, while the actual measured value was 90.54%. At the same time, we analyzed the composition of biodiesel by GC/MS, and determined the quality of biodiesel. The results met the European biodiesel standard EN14214.

Methanolysis of Africa Pear Seed Oil via Thermally Activated Empty Palm Fruit Bunch Ash (TAEPFBA) Catalyst, ANN Prediction and Sensitivity Analysis

This study investigated the catalytic effect of thermal modified empty palm fruit bunch ash (TAEPFBA) on the transesterification reaction of Africa pear seed oil (APSO) with optimization of the process variable, and relative contribution of each variable ascertained. The TAEPFBA was synthesized from empty palm fruit bunches while the APSO was extracted via solvent extraction. The oil and catalyst were characterized using American Standard for Testing of Material (ASTM) and analytical tools. The biodiesel was produced at optimal condition and the yield of biodiesel was predicted with artificial neural network (ANN). The methyl ester produced was characterized and compared with standard properties for its application. The results showed that the oil and catalyst had comparable properties with other oils and catalysts that have been used for transesterification. The optimal conditions for transesterification reaction are temperature of 60oC, reaction time of 3hrs, 10:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, 3wt % catalyst dosage and agitation speed of 300rpm with biodiesel yield of 75%. The biodiesel produced was within the acceptable standard. The ANN predicted the yield of biodiesel with a mean square error (MSE) value of 0.0214 less than 0.05 level of significant. The contributive impact of each process variable shows that the temperature has the highest relative impact on the yield of biodiesel while the methanol/oil molar ratio has the least contribution The overall result shows that the catalyst (TAEPFBA) has the potential to convert the APSO to alkyl ester and the yield can be predicted with ANN tool.

A novel design for biodiesel production from methanol + mutton bone fat mixture

Bioenergy plays a significant role in the green transition. In this work, the conversion of methanol and mutton bone fat oil (as a low-cost feedstock) for bioenergy production was studied. The five-level, three-factor response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the transesterification reaction conditions for produced biodiesel. Twenty ultrasonic-assisted experiments at the frequency of 25 kHz were conducted to investigate the effects of methanol/oil molar ratio (M/O) and concentrations of KOH and NaOH as catalysts on biodiesel yield. A second-order polynomial equation was developed by fitting the RSM experimental data using Design-Expert software. Results showed that the optimum biodiesel yield of 90.087% could be achieved by the KOH catalyst with 2.5 wt% concentration and 15:1 M/O during 3 h of the reaction. Furthermore, the biofuel analyses showed that methanol and mutton bone fat oil can be used as a proper feedstock for biofuel production. In the following, a membrane filtration package system is proposed and modeled. The reaction kinetics was determined based on experimental data. The results of the mathematical modeling showed the reaction time appears to be 6 times shorter in a membrane setup (30 min). Consequently, membrane application is highly recommended for biodiesel production from mutton bone fat oil.

Catalytic Performance for Transesterification Reaction Using Waste Cooking Oils Over Nano-Calcium Oxide (n-CaO) Catalyst from Different Waste Bones

The trans-esterification processes of refined waste groundnut oil (WGO) and sunflower oil (WSO) was optimized using calcium oxide produced from three different animal bones after incineration and characterization. The bone samples were crushed and calcined at 600 oC into fine powders with particulate dimension size of 49 nm. The calcined bones such as, calcined fish bone (CFB), calcine cow bone (CCB), and calcined chicken bone (CCHB) were characterized using the transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Brunnar Emmet Teller (BET), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques.The powdered calcium oxide (CaO) was obtained from the waste animal bones to produced methyl ester (FAMEs). The effect of the catalyst dosage ratio on the physicochemical properties such as, yield, specific gravity, density, kinematic viscosity, and acid values of the produced biodiesel were studied and evaluated. The analysis of results using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS software) showed maximum catalyst dosage and yield for groundnut-based biodiesel (GNB) with CCB at 3.0 wt.% with yield 95.0 % followed by sunflower based biodiesel (SFB) with CCB 4.0 wt. % with yield 95.0 %. The best optimal trans-esterification reaction conditions were a 1:6 molar ratio of oil to methanol, 1 hour reaction period, a 333 K reaction temperature, stirring rate of 1000 rpm, and 3-4 wt. % CaO catalyst loading. This study revealed that waste cooking oils and the obtained calcium oxide were good sources of raw materials that canenhance optimal production of biodiesel that meet the American standards for testing materials ASTM requirements.

Controlled synthesis of aliphatic polycarbonate diols using dimethyl carbonate and various diols

AbstractPolycarbonate diols (PCDLs) are mainly used as soft segments for the synthesis of high‐performance polyurethanes. In this work, dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and aliphatic diols are selected as reactants and CH3COONa is used as a catalyst to synthesize a series of PCDLs with different structures and different molecular weights by ester exchange polymerization reaction. The chemical structures of the PCDLs are characterized by FT‐IR, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR, and the components of the distillates in the ester exchange stage are analyzed by gas chromatography. Due to the azeotropic problem of DMC and by‐product methanol during the ester exchange process, It is difficult to design and control the reactions of PCDLs to obtain the target molecular weight products. Based on the reaction process of PCDLs, we proposed a method to design and synthesize the target molecular weight of PCDLs by using the reaction molar ratio of DMC and aliphatic diols involved in the transesterification reaction, which is not affected by the conditions of transesterification reaction and is applicable to the reactions of DMC with various diols.

Transesterification of Refined Sunflower Oil to Biodiesel Using a CaO/ZSM‐5 Powder Catalyst

AbstractThe production of biodiesel from refined sunflower vegetable oil over basic CaO/ZSM‐5 catalysts was investigated. Several catalysts with various loadings of CaO on ZSM‐5 were prepared, calcined at 800 °C, and characterized by N2 adsorption‐desorption, X‐ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and CO2‐temperature‐programmed desorption techniques. Calcined catalysts were tested in the transesterification reaction and reaction conditions were optimized by varying the catalyst‐to‐oil ratio and reaction time. The most active catalyst was the CaO/ZSM‐5 catalyst with a 35 wt % loading which gave the highest fatty acid methyl ester yield. The high catalytic activity was attributed to the active basic sites generated following CaO addition. Furthermore, the catalyst demonstrated stability against the leaching process.

Optimization of Esterification Reaction Conditions Through the Analysis of the Main Significant Variables

Biodiesel production from residual sources is gaining considerable attention nowadays. Consequently, many different studies with in-depth analysis concerning the influence of the transesterification reaction conditions are available in the literature. However, further evaluation of the esterification of fatty acids in the biodiesel industry is still needed. In this study, different parameters influencing the esterification reaction behavior using ethanol as the alcohol and lauric acid as the FFA are analyzed through factorial design and ANOVA methodologies to verify which ones are significant in the reaction. In total, four parameters were evaluated: temperature, catalyst concentration, ethanol/FFA ratio, and ethanol/water ratio. The temperature and ethanol/water ratio had a major influence on the reaction, as increasing these parameters greatly improved reaction conversion. It was also verified that using hydrous ethanol in the esterification reaction is possible in some conditions.

Immobilization of Potassium-Based Heterogeneous Catalyst over Alumina Beads and Powder Support in the Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil

In this work, the beads and powder potassium hydroxide (KOH) and potassium carbonate (K2CO3) supported on alumina oxide (Al2O3) were successfully prepared via incipient wetness impregnation technique. Herein, the perforated hydrophilic materials (PHM) made from low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was used as the catalyst reactor bed. The prepared catalysts were investigated using TGA, XRD, BET, SEM-EDX, TPD, FTIR while spent catalysts were analyzed using XRF and ICP-AES to study its deactivation mechanism. The catalytic performance of beads and powder KOH/Al2O3 and K2CO3/Al2O3 catalysts were evaluated via transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) to biodiesel. It was found that the optimum conditions for transesterification reaction were 1:12 of oil-to-methanol molar ratio and 5 wt.% of catalyst at 65 °C. As a result, the mesoporous size of beads KOH/Al2O3 and K2CO3/Al2O3 catalysts yielded 86.8% and 77.3% at 2 h’ reaction time of fatty acids methyl ester (FAME), respectively. It was revealed that the utilization of PHM for beads K2CO3/Al2O3 increase the reusability of the catalyst up to 7 cycles. Furthermore, the FAME produced was confirmed by the gas chromatography-mass spectroscopic technique. From this finding, beads KOH/Al2O3 and K2CO3/Al2O3 catalysts showed a promising performance to convert WCO to FAME or known as biodiesel.

Transesterification reaction conditions and low-quality feedstock treatment processes for biodiesel production- A review

Diesel or petro-diesel is a non-renewable fossil fuel that is derived from crude oil and it is likely to be exhausted shortly. Since diesel comes from non-renewable resources, this leads to a rise in energy costs especially with the decline of crude oil production. Biodiesel is a type of biofuel that has a composition and combustion properties similar to petrodiesel fuel. Renewable resources such as vegetable oil, algae, and animal fats are crucial feedstocks for biodiesel production. Biodiesel is a renewable and clean fuel as it reduces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter emissions compared with petroleum-based diesel fuel. The conversion of vegetable oil to alkyl esters (biodiesel) depends upon certain parameters that affect the biodiesel production process such as catalyst concentration, methanol to waste cooking oil ratio, temperature, mixing rate, and reaction time. In this paper, the effect of reaction parameters on the yield quantity and properties will be shown.

Structural and compositional evaluation of waste cooking oil algal oil biodiesel using FTIR and GC-FID for improved fuel properties

Energy demand and need for sustainable sources for fuel production have resulted in the development of alternative fuel technologies. Waste cooking oil (WCO) and algal oil (AO) extracted from Chlorella variabilis have been transesterified to yield WCO biodiesel (WCOBD) and AO biodiesel (AOBD). The present study aims to produce biodiesel by blending optimised proportion (1.25%) of AO with WCO to get 1.25AO-WCO for making biodiesel with improved properties. The reaction conditions for transesterification of 1.25AO-WCO were augmented by response surface methodology tool to attain supreme fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 98%. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of 1.25AO-WCO BD were performed to prove the production of biodiesel and their FAME profile is determined using gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector (GC-FID). Properties of 1.25AO-WCO BD were determined for 1.25AO-WCO BD and observed to meet ASTM standards apart from exhibiting better properties than biodiesel made from 100% WCO.