Transesterification Of Waste Cooking Oil Research Articles

Ultrasound-assisted transesterification of waste cooking oil to biodiesel utilizing banana peel derived heterogeneous catalyst

Scientists are considering substitute energies as a consequence of the increasing global demand for energy. An eco-friendly and high flash point biofuel, biodiesel, can be obtained from different types of animal fats, vegetable oils, and algal oils through transesterification with methanol with the support of a catalyst. The current study focused on exploring a bio-based heterogeneous catalyst, Nendran banana peel (NBP), for biodiesel production from promising feedstocks like waste cooking oil (WCO) using ultrasound-based transesterification. Catalyst morphological characterization showed a microporous structure and shows the minerals like potassium and calcium present in it which help to catalyze the reaction. The resultant biodiesel yield calculated using 1H NMR showed 72.25% conversion. The outcomes of this study showed that the Nendran banana peel can act as a potent catalyst for the biodiesel manufacturing process.Graphical

Thermostable CaCO3-Immobilized Bacillus subtilis Lipase for Sustainable Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil

Due to the increasing demand for green processes in renewable energy production, the extracellular Bacillus subtilis B-1-4 lipase was used as a biocatalyst for producing biodiesel from waste cooking oil. Response surface methodology was employed for the optimization of enzyme production. Lipase activity was modeled with a quadratic function of four factors that primarily influence the culture medium. Thanks to this model, an optimal lipase activity of 1.7 ± 0.082 U/mL was achieved with the best culture medium composition: 16 g/L of tryptone, 15 g/L of yeast extract, 15 g/L of NaCl, and a 0.15 initial optical density at 600 nm (OD600 nm). The maximal lipase activity was measured at 45 °C and pH 8, using para-nitrophenyl palmitate as a substrate. The enzyme maintained above 94% and 99% of its initial activity at temperatures ranging from 40 to 50 °C and at pH 8, respectively. Moreover, it exhibited a higher residual activity than other Bacillus lipases in the presence of organic solvents. Residual activities of 86.7% and 90.2% were measured in the presence of isopropanol and ethanol, respectively. The lipase was immobilized by adsorption onto CaCO3 powder. FT-IR and SEM were used to characterize the surface-modified support. After immobilization, a lipase activity of 7.1 U/mg of CaCO3 was obtained. Under the optimized conditions, the highest biodiesel yield of 71% was obtained through the transesterification of waste cooking oil using the CaCO3-immobilized Bacillus subtilis lipase. This research reveals a method for the utilization of waste cooking oil for biodiesel production using an efficient immobilized thermostable lipase, providing environmental and economic security.

Kapok Derived Activated Carbon Catalyst Assisted in Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil

The present study aims to synthesize green carbon-based catalyst from kapok (Ceiba pentandra) using two different activating agents: KOH (CB1) and K2CO3 (CB2) with 1:1.0 (raw material: activating agent), at activation temperature of 400 °C and impregnation time of only 15 min. The synthesized catalysts were evaluated in the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel. CB1 registered higher iodine number and percentage yield (1446.30 mg/g, 62.60 %) compared to 1200.23 mg/g and 53.50 % obtained for CB2. Several physico-chemical characterizations were subjected for kapok and the carbon catalysts such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and CHNS/O Analyzer. FTIR investigation showed the disappearance or reduction in peak intensity of several peaks at 1512-1200 cm-1 in the carbon catalyst compared to raw kapok, arising due to carbonization and activation processes. CHNSO analysis verified that both CB1 and CB2 registered high carbon content of 63.93 % and 62.86 %, respectively compared to the raw kapok (43.54 %). Morphological studies by SEM analysis showed appearance of cylindrical tube for all the samples. The biodiesel synthesis from WCO at 0.2 wt.% catalyst loading, methanol to oil (molar ratio of 3:1), reaction temperature of 60 ˚C for 1 h resulted in high catalysis over CB1 (89.57 %), followed by CB2 (87.46 %) and without catalyst (35.46 %). Large iodine number and high carbon content exhibited by CB1 was the probable reasoning for the accelerated activity of CB1 in the transesterification of WCO. To conclude, the present work showed a successful conversion of waste biomass into promising carbon catalyst for green synthesis of biodiesel from WCO.

Optimization of biodiesel production in a high throughput branched microreactor

Biodiesel as a renewable and environmentally friendly fuel can be considered an alternative to fossil fuel in industries, and one of the promising approaches to developing biodiesel yield is its production in microreactors. However, the produced quantity from microreactors is limited which necessitates higher throughput microreactors to be produced, maintaining the high yield of biodiesel. Therefore, this study investigated the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) with methanol in the presence of sodium hydroxide as the catalyst using a novel branched microreactor, used for higher throughput applications. Thus, a novel four-micro serpentine-based microreactor was designed and fabricated with no external tubing. Biodiesel is produced in the fabricated microreactor and the Box-Behnken Design method (BBD) in Minitab software was used to design the experiments with different operating conditions: methanol to oil molar ratio (6:1–12:1), catalyst concentration (0.5–1.5 wt%), and reaction temperature (55–65 °C) to optimize the biodiesel volume yield in the designed microreactor. The optimum biodiesel yield using GC–MS analysis was found to be 82.8 % at a methanol to oil molar ratio of 12:1, 1.5 wt% catalyst concentration, and reaction temperature of 59.4 °C while maintaining the reactants’ inlet flow rate of 20 µL/s. Production of up to 35 mL biodiesel was collected in 30 min only. In addition, the microreactor achieved up to 97 % conversion at inlet flow rates of 8.5 µL/s.

Optimization of the activity of Mo7-Zn3/CaO catalyst in the transesterification of waste cooking oil into sustainable biodiesel via response surface methodology

An enriched basic site CaO-supported bimetallic Molybdenum-Zinc (Mo7-Zn3) catalyst was successfully synthesized via wet-impregnation and evaluated for the transesterification of waste cooking oil into biodiesel. The physicochemical characterization of the Mo7-Zn3/CaO catalyst demonstrated good dispersion of CaMoO4 and ZnO oxides on CaO support, with a mesoporous structure allowing for better mass transfer between reactants. The Mo7-Zn3/CaO catalyst exhibited high transesterification activity (95 ± 0.3 % FAME conversion), owing to the large density of strong Brønsted basic sites (conjugated O2–) generated from simultaneous interaction among Ca2+, Zn2+, and Mo6+ metal species. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Box Behnken Design (BBD) were used to optimize the reaction and indeed, the utmost FAME conversion of 95 % is achieved using 3.37 wt% catalyst loading, 12:1 methanol to oil molar ratio within 2.27 h at 62.7 °C reaction temperature. The model reliability in predicting the FAME yield using the established catalyst under varying operational conditions was excitedly validated with a reasonable accuracy error of 0.5 %. The catalyst exhibited good stability, maintaining a high FAME conversion (95–85 %) during 5 reusable cycles without significant loss in catalytic activity. A closer look for a detailed approach and a heterogeneous mechanism for the reaction using Mo7-Zn3/CaO catalyst was proposed. The physical and chemical properties of the produced biodiesel were carefully compared with the standard for biodiesel, and were found to majorly comply with ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 biodiesel properties. An investigation into the economic competitiveness and industrial applicability of biodiesel production using Mo7-Zn3/CaO from WCO reveals significant potential for sustainable and efficient biodiesel synthesis.

OH-Impregnated Household Bleach-Making Sediments for the Catalysis of Waste Cooking Oil Transesterification: Parameter Optimization.

Industrial and academic societies have been bothered with the generation and subsequent management of residues settled out from household bleach, due to its corrosive properties. Therefore, the aim of this research was to introduce a NaOH-impregnated calcium-based solid catalyst from the aforementioned sediments for waste cooking oil transesterification. To prepare the catalyst (RC-ITB), the wet impregnation technique was followed and successfully characterized via X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence(XRF), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) methods. The study findings suggested that RC-ITB has a BET surface area of 9.312 m2 g-1 and is largely made up of calcium with its compound forms such as carbonates, hydroxides, and oxides. The evaluation of pH values verified that RC-ITB is more alkaline (i.e., pH = 12.65) relative to its precursor RC (pH = 10.66), largely attributable to OH impregnation. To study the catalytic performance, three numeric factors with three levels of treatment were used, and their influences were analyzed through a response surface approach. Accordingly, the optimal yield of biodiesel was found to be 80.04% at a reaction temperature of 61 ± 2 °C, catalyst weight of 6.33 wt %, and a molar ratio of 23.94. Moreover, FTIR analysis verified that the glycerol part of triglycerides had been replaced with a methoxyl unit. Also, the fuel quality parameters of the FAME product were examined, including density, kinematic viscosity, acid value, density, cetane number, cloud point, saponification value, and pour point; all of these values fall within the ASTM D6751-accepted limits. Thus, the findings showed that the sediments of household bleach production could be a candidate source to explore heterogeneous basic catalysts.

Microwave-assisted transesterification of waste cooking oil using zinc ferrite catalyst for biodiesel production

Microwave-assisted transesterification of waste cooking oil using zinc ferrite catalyst for biodiesel production

Oxygenated bio-fuel synthesis in reactive distillation: A technological reform under process intensification

Chemical Engineering processes demands separation of reaction products to obtain them in purest form. Reactive Distillation facilitates this feature by incorporating a reactive zone for reaction between conventional rectifying and stripping zone for distillation. It also aid for solid catalyst incorporation of amphoteric nature to avoid repetitive addition of catalyst for different experimental run and will also improve the product yield. The other beneficial features of Reactive Distillation include reduced synthesis cost, reduced utility space required and higher selectivity. This technique is introduced in this paper for synthesis of oxygenated bio-fuel. For this, fuel additive of ether family namely Tert Amyl Ethyl Ether (TAEE) is synthesized using ethanol. Similarly, Biodiesel synthesis is done using transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol. Both fuel-oxygenate (TAEE) and biodiesel are then blended in varying proportion to improve ignition quality of biodiesel fuel. The study is done experimentally and analyzed under object oriented modeling mode in simulation. Optimization of synthesis process is done using revamping in experimental mode corresponding to sensitivity analysis in simulation. The congruence results show that purity of 95 % and 65 % for biodiesel and TAEE respectively is obtained in reactive distillation corresponding to reboiler duty of 2 kW and reflux ratio 4.

Analyzing the performance of synthesized nano-catalysts for transesterification of waste cooking oil as environment friendly drilling fluid

Ester-based drilling fluids (EBDF) are preferred over oil-based drilling fluids (OBDF) and water-based drilling fluids (WBDF) because of their great biodegradability, low toxicity, and improved performance. In this work, waste cooking oil methyl ester (WCOME) was used to prepare an environmentally friendly EBDF. Through a transesterification process utilizing a modified calcium oxide based heterogenous catalyst, the waste cooking oil is transformed into waste cooking oil methyl ester. Response surface approach was used to strengthen the transesterification. The optimize conditions for CaO/Al2O3 resulted in the highest yield of 96.56% at a molar ratio of 11.9:1, 3.19 wt % of CaO/Al2O3, 53.79 °C, and 76.86 min. In contrast, CaO/TiO2 yielded 98.15% at a molar ratio of 11.99:1, with a CaO/TiO2 of 2.53 wt % at 59.79 in 68.14 min. Additionally, two separate densities of 9 ppg and 12 ppg EBDF are formulated with two distinct oil-to-water ratios (70:30 and 80:20) using synthesized WCOME. To assess the effectiveness of formulated EBDF thorough rheological investigation is conducted at 150°. Additionally, the filtration loss at HPHT conditions, emulsion stability, and Barite sag analysis of the drilling fluid are all analyzed at before ageing and after dynamic ageing. With better rheological features, less fluid loss, good emulsion stability, and minimal barite sagging, the designed EBDF performs efficiently. The drilling fluid met the API requirement and demonstrated stability even after ageing at 250 °F for 72 h, suggesting that it may be used for extended periods of time in drilling.

Calcium Oxide as an Efficient Heterogeneous Catalyst for Production of Biodiesel

This study was carried out on biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using commercial and synthesized calcium oxide. Synthesized calcium oxide was prepared by calcination of the waste chicken bones at 800 Co for 7 hours. The prepared samples were characterized using FT-IR, SEM, EDX and N2-sorption at 77.3 K. The catalytic activity of these catalysts was investigated by transesterification of waste cooking oil with two types of alcohol (ethanol and methanol). The yields of biodiesel using synthesized CaO were 73% with methanol and 65.5% with ethanol, while using commercial CaO were 71 % and 63 %. The results indicated that the CaO catalysts derived from waste chicken bones showed high potential to be used as biodiesel production catalysts in transesterification of cooking oil with methanol and ethanol.

Synthesis, Adsorption and Catalytic Properties of Eggshell-Coconut Pith for Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil

This study aims to develop a sustainable heterogeneous biocatalyst prepared from calcined eggshell waste impregnated with waste coconut piths for producing biodiesel from used cooking oil. Waste eggshells were subjected to thermogravimetric analysis for calcinations at suitable temperature under inert atmosphere. It was subjected to impregnation of coconut pith by physical and chemical adsorption. The prepared eggshell-coconut pith catalyst was optimized at different parameters like temperature, mass ratio of coconut pith, eggshell and variant concentration of the solvent used for socking of coconut pith and eggshell. The adsorption of coconut pith on the eggshell surface were characterized by BET analysis and SEM analysis, the size of atom of eggshell was increased after impregnation of coconut pith by 100 μm. The adsorption of coconut pith on eggshell was validated by Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models and order of impregnation reaction was verified by pseudo-first and pseudo-second order models. The effect of process parameters like amount of catalyst loading, oil: alcohol ratio, time, speed of iteration, pH of the solvent and temperature, which enhanced the yield of biodiesel to ~ 87%.

Using solar microreactors and photocatalysts to synthesize biodiesel

This paper investigates the transesterification of waste cooking oil using TiO2, CuO, and GO as catalysts in solar plain and helical glass microreactors. Catalyst properties were determined through XRD, SEM, and FT-IR analyses. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize biodiesel production, with GO catalyst and helical microreactor proving most effective due to their unique geometry. The highest biodiesel purity was achieved with GO at 99.98%, followed by TiO2 at 95.78% and CuO at 93.55%, all with a 3% catalyst dose, 200 s residence time, and oil-to-methanol volume ratio of 2. The study utilized solar energy and glass microreactors, resulting in a 94% reduction in energy consumption.

Biochar-based bi-functional catalyst derived from rubber seed shell and eggshell for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil

The application of biomass-based sources for energy generation has attracted much interest in recent times due to theirenvironmental benefits. In this study, the potential use of rubber seed shells and eggshells in the synthesis of bi-functional catalysts for biodiesel production has been investigated. The catalyst was produced in a sequence of steps that includedcarbonization, sulfonation, calcination, and impregnation. The catalyst was characterized using Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. The catalysts’ performance was assessed throughthe simultaneous esterification and transesterification of waste cooking oil with a free fatty acid content of 2.9 %. Response surface methodology based on central composite design was employed to model and optimize the process. The factors investigated included methanol/oil ratio (4:1 – 20:1), catalyst concentration (1 – 5 wt%), reaction temperature (50 – 70 °C), and time (1 – 5 h). The catalyst was found to have a specific surface area of 241.0 m2/g, a pore volume of 0.189 cc/g, and a pore size of 1.132 nm. A methanol/oil molar ratio of 14.2:1, catalyst concentration of 2.0 wt%, temperature of 62.5 °C, and reaction time of 2.3 h were the optimum reaction conditions required to achieve an optimum average biodiesel yield of 89.4 % and FFA conversion of 91.8 %. Also, the leaching of the catalysts wasinsignificant, and the catalysts demonstrated good reusability, producing a biodiesel yield of 81.9 % after the fifth cycle. The physicochemical properties of the produced biodiesel fall within the ranges of the recommended ASTM 6751 and EN14214 international standards. The utilization of rubber seeds and eggshells for catalyst synthesis offers a promising, cost-effective, and eco-friendly way to produce biodiesel.

Biocatalyzed Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil for Biodiesel Production Using Lipase from the Amazonian Fungus Endomelanconiopsis endophytica

The demand for biodiesel worldwide is skyrocketing as the need to replace fossil diesel with renewable energy sources becomes increasingly pressing. In this context, biocatalysis is emerging as an environmentally friendly and highly efficient alternative to chemical catalysis. When combined with the utilization of waste materials, it has the potential to make the process of biodiesel production sustainable. In the study, the potential of an extract rich in lipase produced by an Amazonian endophytic fungus as a biocatalyst in the transesterification of waste cooking oil for biodiesel production has been systematically investigated. The fungus Endomelanconiopsis endophytica exhibited an enzyme production of 11,262 U/mL after 120 h of cultivation. The lipolytic extract demonstrated its highest catalytic activity at 40 °C and a pH of 5.5. Using soybean oil and frying residue as raw materials, biodiesel was produced through biocatalytic transesterification, and yields of 91% and 89% (wt.), respectively, were achieved. By evaluating the process parameters, a maximum biodiesel yield of 90% was achieved using ethanol at a ratio of 3:1 ratio within 120 min. The experimental results demonstrate the feasibility and sustainability of applying a fungal enzymatic extract as a biocatalyst in the production of ethyl esters using waste cooking oil as a raw material.

Exceptional room temperature catalytic transesterification of waste cooking oil to biodiesel using environmentally-benign K2CO3/γ-Al2O3 nano-catalyst

Exceptional room temperature catalytic transesterification of waste cooking oil to biodiesel using environmentally-benign K2CO3/γ-Al2O3 nano-catalyst

Sustainable biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using banana peel biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 magnetic catalyst

Addressing environmental challenges and energy resource scarcity, this study focuses on biodiesel production through the transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol. To facilitate the reaction, a novel heterogeneous catalyst, derived from waste banana peels and composed of biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5, was employed. The magnetic acid–base catalyst was prepared by carbonating banana peel residue with Fe(III) and potassium hydroxide activator under N2 gas at 700 °C for 2 h. Extensive analysis of the physical and chemical properties of the biochar-based catalyst, including electron microscope analysis, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and vibration magnetometer techniques, was conducted. The study also explored the influence of crucial parameters on biodiesel yield from waste cooking oil using the biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 catalyst. These parameters included the molar ratio of methanol to oil (ranging from 5 to 9 mol/mol), catalyst amount (2–6 wt%), temperature (40–80 °C), and reaction time (1–5 h). Results indicated that optimal conditions for achieving a biodiesel yield of 88.83% were a methanol to oil molar ratio of 7:1, a catalyst amount of 4 wt% for a reaction time of 3 h at 60 °C. The resulting biodiesel exhibited promising properties, including a density of 0.883 g/cm3, a kinematic viscosity of 4.37 mm2/s, and a flash point of 147 °C. The findings of this study highlight the substantial implications and practical benefits of employing rational engineering techniques in the utilization of biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 as an exceptionally efficient, stable, and readily recoverable catalyst for the sustainable production of biodiesel from waste oil.

Application of pharmaceutical waste as a heterogeneous catalyst for transesterification of waste cooking oil: biofuel production and its modeling using predictive tools

In this study, for the first time, pharmaceutical waste was used as a heterogeneous catalyst to produce biofuel from waste cooking oil (WCO). An efficient and low-cost heterogeneous catalyst was prepared from waste tablets of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium oxide (MgO). A certain amount of alumina nanoparticles (Al2O3) was added to the pharmaceutical waste to participate in the transesterification of the WCO, which positively affected mass yield. The mentioned catalysts were identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analyses. According to the BET analysis, the specific surface of the catalysts increased. Also, the effects of various reaction parameters such as temperature, time, catalyst loading, and the oil: methanol ratio were investigated and optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). Furthermore, an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) was coupled with a firefly optimization algorithm to predict biofuel yield. Under optimum conditions (Al2O3 0.952 wt%, catalyst 4.978wt%, oil:methanol ratio 0.5 vol:vol, reaction time 120 min, and reaction temperature 69.6 °C), the mass yield of MgO and CaO catalysts was 95.6 and 90.4 wt%, respectively. The composition of biofuel was identified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Production of High-Efficiency Alternative Biodiesel from Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil Using an In-house Made Y-Type Zeolite Catalyst

Production of High-Efficiency Alternative Biodiesel from Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil Using an In-house Made Y-Type Zeolite Catalyst

Phosphotungstic Wells-Dawson Heteropolyacid as Potential Catalyst in the Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil

The esterification of oleic acid was applied in order to screen the suitability of a series of phosphotungstic-based Wells-Dawson types of compounds as potential catalysts in the heterogeneous transesterification of sunflower waste cooking oil. This test reaction indicated that the phosphotungstic Wells-Dawson heteropolyacid H6P2W18O62·xH2O, dispersed on titania oxide in a loading of 15 mg per m2 of oxide support (named 42% HPA/TiO2) and possessing exclusively Brønsted acid sites, was the most promising among the screened materials. In addition, the application of a nonlinear analysis methodology to find a surface that fits the specific activity of the oleic acid esterification with methanol at various temperatures, weights of catalyst, molar ratios of substrates, and stirring speeds, and also considering the active phase desorption out of the catalyst’s surface, allowed determining the optimum operative conditions that were applied in the transesterification of the waste cooking oil afterwards. The transesterification of the waste cooking oil at 60 °C and 1:9 WCO: methanol molar ratio in a batch reactor under stirring at 650 rpm for 3 h, catalyzed with 0.25 wt% of 42% HPA/TiO2 (20.0 g of oil and 49.6 mg of catalyst), presents 74.6% of conversion of glycerides and 74.4% yield towards fatty acid methyl esters. The catalyst was recovered and reused several times, maintaining a fairly constant catalytic performance.

Assessment of a green zeolite/bacterial cellulose nanocomposite membrane as a catalyst to produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil

ABSTRACT Zeolite-bacterial cellulose nanocomposite membrane (ZBCN) has been prepared and evaluated as a catalyst in the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) to give biodiesel. Bacterial cellulose membrane was obtained during cultivation of Komagataeibacter as a bacterial isolate; meanwhile, zeolite A (ZA) was prepared from Egyptian ores. The results confirmed that, the amount of triglyceride (TG) converted into fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was ≥77%, while the total conversion of TG and the conversion to other compounds were 84.4% and 7.4%, respectively, during 9 h and methanol to TG 40:1 molar ratio. XRD, SEM, EDX, and zeta potential measurements were utilized to characterize the prepared catalyst. TLC and HPTLC were employed to prove biodiesel successful synthesis and quantify its percentage in the product, respectively. The composition of FAMEs was determined by GC-MS. It revealed that the major components in the synthesized FAMEs were palmitic acid methyl ester (40.2%), oleic acid methyl ester (53%), and linoleic acid methyl ester (5.4%). The saponification number, iodine value, cetane number, and higher heating values of the synthesized biodiesel were 193.3 mg KOH/g, 54.6 g I/100 g, 62.26, and 42.3 MJ/kg, respectively, which meet the qualification of international standards. The acidity (1.68 mg KOH/g) and the viscosity (10 cSt) of the synthesized biodiesel by ZBCN showed superiority over their counterparts of WCO, but they still need further improvement.