Transesterification Of Soybean Oil Research Articles

Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production using a nonionic surfactant and CaO from eggshell as a catalyst

ABSTRACT Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool used to evaluate the environmental impacts and resources used to manufacture a product. The present study proposes an innovative and unprecedented based on LCA of biodiesel production from the methyl transesterification of soybean oil catalyzed by eggshell-derived CaO and using the nonionic surfactant nonylphenol ethoxylate (NP6EO). Biodiesel was produced under mild conditions with a 1:4 methanol-to-oil ratio, 2 wt% CaO, 1 wt% NP6EO, and reaction times of 2 hours with surfactant and 3 hours without, with a yield of 95.18% and 97.75%, respectively. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) was performed using the SimaPro software and the Ecoinvent 3.6 database by implementing the CML-IA baseline method. Results indicated that the catalyst preparation process had the lowest environmental impact, while soybean oil used contributed the most across all impact categories. The surfactant-based process was 77% more eco-efficient than the non-surfactant process. Results also showed that surfactant concentration has more influence on impacts than additional electricity consumption due to a longer reaction time. Compared to traditional KOH-catalyzed biodiesel production, the use of CaO from eggshells and NP6EO demonstrated a lower environmental impact, suggesting this method is a promising alternative to conventional processes.

Evaluation of Microbial Phospholipase and Lipase Activity Through the Chromatographic Analysis of Crude, Degummed, and Transesterified Soybean Oil for Biodiesel Production.

The present study aimed at synthesizing fatty acid methyl esters in a combined enzymatic method by applying degumming and transesterification of soybean oil. A soluble lipase from Serratia sp. W3 and a recombinant phosphatidylcholine-preferring phospholipase C (PC-PLC) from Bacillus thuringiensis were used in a consecutive manner for phosphorus removal and conversion into methyl esters. By applying 1% of recombinant PC-PLC almost 83% of phosphorus was removed (final content of 21.01mg/kg). Moreover, a sensitive and selective high-performance liquid chromatography method coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was applied to obtain a comprehensive lipid profile for the simultaneous evaluation of phospholipids removal and diacylglycerol (DAG) increase. A significant increase for all the monitored DAG species, up to 138.42%, was observed by using the enzymatic degumming, in comparison to the crude sample, resulting in an increased oil yield. Serratia sp. W3 lipase was identified as a suitable biocatalyst for biodiesel production, converting efficiently the acylglycerols. The results regarding the physical-chemical characteristics show that the cetane level, density and pour point of the obtained biodiesel are close to current regulation requirements. These findings highlight the potential of a two-step process implementation, based on the combination of lipase and phospholipase, as a suitable alternative for biodiesel production.

Catalytic evaluation of eggshell‐based calcium methoxide over Al2O3 for biodiesel generation from waste cooking oil

AbstractShell‐derived materials are promising heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production due to their nontoxic and renewable nature, but they have the disadvantage of being highly leachable. To overcome this issue, Ca(OCH3)2 formed through the reaction of CaO with methanol, and supported in turn on Al2O3 is proposed as a catalytic system for the transesterification of fresh soybean oil and waste cooking oil (WCO). First, catalysts with several Al/Ca molar ratios (0.2, 0.5, and 0.8‐AC), as well as their precursors (CaO and Al2O3) alone, were tested at 60 °C, catalyst loading 6% wt, methanol‐to‐oil molar ratio (MOR) 10, for 1 h for fresh oil, and 3 h for WCO. The 0.2‐AC catalyst generated the highest biodiesel yield for both oils. The optimum operating conditions for WCO transesterification, determined by using a univariable approach, were 60 °C, 9 wt% catalyst loading, MOR of 12.5, and a reaction time of 3 h. These improved conditions led to yields higher than 90% for pure CaO and the 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8‐AC catalysts. The density, kinematic viscosity, and refractive index of the biodiesel obtained were measured.

Evaluation of oil transesterification in a packed‐bed reactor containing lipase immobilized in starch–alginate jet cutting beads

AbstractThere has been a growing interest in ecofriendly enzymatic processes. However, enzyme solubility limits the application of many biocatalysts in continuous systems, requiring the development of cost‐effective strategies for enzyme immobilization. Based on this premise, this study investigated the application of lipase immobilized in starch–alginate beads for oil transesterification in a tubular reactor. An economical derivative was produced by immobilizing Eversa Transform 2.0 in 50:50 (w/w) starch–alginate beads using the jet‐cutting technique. The biocatalyst had a particle size of about 500 μm and activity of 138.67 ± 18.53 U g−1. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed nitrogen content ranging from 6.38% to 7.29%, with uniform distribution of lipase throughout the beads. Nitrogen isotherms were characteristic of mesoporous materials, with an average pore diameter of 48.09 Å and low surface area (0.69 m2 g−1). A face‐centered central composite design was used to study soybean oil transesterification. In the best four runs, the process achieved a mean triglyceride conversion of 45%. High ester productivity levels (2.05 × 10−2% ester g−1 biocatalyst min−1 or 1.5 × 10−4% ester U−1 min−1) were obtained. Biocatalyst reuse led to a twofold increase in ester concentration (14.57% vs 7.7%). These findings confirm the successful development of a low‐cost biocatalyst suitable for use in continuous reactions.

Biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil by microwave transesterification using inert aluminium foil (1%) as a heating promoter

The manufacture of biodiesel from waste cooking oil, using cost-effective and environmentally friendly processes, continues to attract attention. Microwave radiation (MW), which is easy to use and is not demanding on power supplies, can promote rapid chemical reactions; however, our understanding of the MW absorption that occurs with the oscillation of polar reactants is far from complete. To increase the interaction of MW with reactant, our approach used a MW reactor in conjunction with a transesterification process. A small amount of aluminium foil, which remains chemically inert in the reaction, was used as a MW heating promoter to accelerate transesterification without generating sparks in a process employing 700W MW irradiation at room temperature. The temperature of the MW reactor was measured by thermal image analysis, while thermogravimetric analysis (TA) and gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy were used to characterize the components and boiling points and of soybean oil and its fatty acid components. The optimal size of the aluminium foil to use was determined by studying the transesterification of soybean oil with catalytic NaOH in a closed glass bottle. The results indicated that the reaction time to give a conversion of 82% was shortened by approximately 60% by adding 1 wt% aluminium foil (3 × 3 mm2).

Predict the characteristics of the DI engine with various injection timings by Glycine max oil biofuel using artificial neural networks.

Glycine max oil biofuel (GMOB) is a product of the transesterification of soybean oil. It contains a substantial amount of thermal energy. In this study, the result of varying fuel injection timings on the performance, ignition, and exhaust parameters of a research engine with single-cylinder, four-stroke with direct injection (DI) diesel was experimentally investigated and optimised using artificial neural networks (ANN). The results demonstrated that a 20% fuel blend with 24.5° before top dead centre (b TDC) decreased brake thermal efficiency (BTE), NOx emissions, and exhaust cylinder temperature but improved fuel consumption, carbon dioxide emissions (CDE), and smoke emissions. With 26.5° b TDC, the BTE was found to be approximately 5.0% higher while the fuel consumption was approximately 2.0% lower than with the original injection timing of 24.5° b TDC. At 26.5° b TDC, the NOx emission was approximately 8.6% higher, and the smoke emission was approximately 4.07% lower than at the original injection timing (24.5° b TDC).

Lipase grafted on magnetic and CO2 dual-responsive Janus nanoparticles for interfacial catalyzed transesterification

Enzyme-loaded Pickering emulsions are a promising system for biphasic catalytic reactions. The monodisperse core-shell Janus nanoparticles (JNPs) P[xMAOAAO-yDEAEA]@RF@Fe3O4-CRL with magnetic and CO2 dual-responsiveness were synthesized by the wax/water emulsion. The catalysts can perfectly steady the oil/methanol Pickering emulsion and produce biodiesel by static transesterification of soybean oil. There is a synergistic effect between the interfacial activation of CRL realized by amphiphilic Janus supporters and the stability of the Pickering emulsions. Under optimal reaction conditions, the Pickering interfacial biocatalyst exhibits excellent enzymatic activity, reaching a biodiesel yield of 87.33 %. Furthermore, magnetic absorption and introduction of CO2 separate the catalyst P[2MAOAAO-DEAEA]@RF@Fe3O4-CRL from the system, and the biodiesel yield is 86.3 % after 6 cycles.

Indirect Measurement of Variables in a Heterogeneous Reaction for Biodiesel Production.

This research focuses on the development of a state observer for performing indirect measurements of the main variables involved in the soybean oil transesterification reaction with a guishe biochar-based heterogeneous catalyst; the studied reaction takes place in a batch reactor. The mathematical model required for the observer design includes the triglycerides' conversion rate, and the reaction temperature. Since these variables are represented by nonlinear differential equations, the model is linearized around an operation point; after that, the pole placement and linear quadratic regulator (LQR) methods are considered for calculating the observer gain vector L(x). Then, the estimation of the conversion rate and the reaction temperature provided by the observer are used to indirectly measure other variables such as esters, alcohol, and byproducts. The observer performance is evaluated with three error indexes considering initial condition variations up to 30%. With both methods, a fast convergence (less than 3 h in the worst case) of the observer is remarked.

Upcycling Waste Snail Shells into High-Performance Nanocatalyst for Optimized Biodiesel Production: A Sustainable Approach

The transesterification of soybean oil (SO) to biodiesel utilizing a basic CaO nanocatalyst derived from waste snail shells has been reported in this work. The steady rise in greenhouse gas emissions contributes to environmental pollution, posing a significant threat to human life due to the escalating rates of petroleum consumption worldwide. Thus, biodiesel appears as a potential liquid fuel for replacing petroleum diesel. Here we have utilized waste snail shells as a cost-effective material which will reduce the overall biodiesel manufacturing cost. We obtained a remarkable biodiesel yield of 96.1 % with a very low activation energy (30.45 kJ mol−1). The catalyst displayed exceptional stability, maintaining consistent catalytic activity over six consecutive cycles without experiencing a notable decline. Using life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) it has been discovered that the estimated cost of producing 1kg of biodiesel is merely $ 0.935, highlighting its robust potential for extensive commercial adoption.

Two-dimensional Mo catalysts supported on the external surface of planar Silicalite-1 zeolite for biodiesel production from waste cooking soybean oil: Transesterification experiment and kinetics

Customized and two-dimensional Mo catalyst supported on external surface of planar Silicalite-1 (Mo/S-1-p) zeolite was prepared for efficient transesterification of waste cooking soybean oil (WCSO) to produce biodiesel. Structural characteristics show the framework structure of Mo/S-1-p was almost unchanged by introducing different Mo-loading, and the Mo6+ oxide species were only well dispersed on the outer surface of Mo/S-1-p with low Mo-loading, but the aggregation of bulky MoO3 were detected under the high Mo-loading above 5 %. Furthermore, the 5Mo/S-1-p catalyst showed a good performance and stability, which exhibited the WCSO conversion of 80.73 % and biodiesel selectivity of 99.32 %. Additionally, the intrinsic kinetics of the transesterification of WCSO catalyzed by 5Mo/S-1-p catalyst was studied after eliminating mass transfer diffusion. The corresponding kinetic equation was established through the correlation of the initial rate and the reactant concentration, and the apparent Ea was calculated to be 48.03 kJ mol−1. Finally, the fuel properties of the as-synthesized biodiesel are matched with the current international standards. This research provides a beneficial technology for the synthesis of green and inexpensive sustainable fuel.

Comparative life cycle cost analysis of bio-valorized magnetite nanocatalyst for biodiesel production: Modeling, optimization, kinetics and thermodynamic study

An active, high surface area, recyclable, magnetic, basic, iron oxide-based nanocatalyst was developed from banana leaves waste and used for microwave-assisted transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel. According to the Hammett indicator, the catalyst has a high total basicity of 15 < H < 18.4. After optimization through the response surface methodology, the reaction allows 96.5 % biodiesel yield in the presence of 24:1 methanol to soybean oil molar ratio, 6 wt% BLW@Fe3O4, 0.5 h at 65 °C. The magnetic nature of the catalyst improves reusability for up to 6 cycles. Thermodynamic analyses showed that transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel is an endothermic reaction. Moreover, the catalyst has the potential to reduce biodiesel production costs by utilizing abundant biomass waste materials. The calculated cost for 1 kg of catalyst is $1.14, while the biodiesel's cost per kg produced in this work is merely $1.05, showing high commercial viability.

Biodiesel synthesis through soybean oil transesterification using choline-based amino acid ionic liquids as catalysts

In this study, twelve choline-based amino acid ionic liquids ([Cho][AA]-ILs) were synthesized employing amino acids and choline as raw materials. [Cho][AA]-ILs were effectively employed as catalysts in the biodiesel preparation via the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol. Among the synthesized [Cho][AA]-ILs, cholinium arginate ([Cho][Arg]) was selected as the appropriate catalyst. To optimize the primary experimental reaction conditions (methanol to oil molar ratio, catalyst load, reaction temperature, and reaction time), an experimental design was achieved by the A response surface methodology (RSM) based on the Box-Behnken design (BBD). The maximum biodiesel conversion of 98.58% was achieved with the [Cho][Arg] catalyst under the following optimal conditions: methanol to oil molar ratio of 9.13:1, catalyst load of 14.75%, a reaction time of 56.44 min and temperature 81.41 °C. A first-order kinetic of [Cho][Arg]-catalyzed transesterification of soybean oil with methanol was shown with activation energy and a pre-exponential factor of 10.06 kJ·mol−1 and 1.1707 min−1, respectively. The ionic liquid [Cho][Arg] is a promising, easy to synthesize, and biodegradable catalyst that can replace traditional catalysts for the synthesis of biodiesel.

Process Optimization of Biodiesel Production Using Waste Snail Shell as a Highly Active Nanocatalyst

In this work, we reported the transesterification of soybean oil (SO) to biodiesel using a basic CaO nanocatalyst produced by sequential calcination, hydration, and dehydration of waste snail shells. Response-surface methodology (RSM) and a central composite design (CCD) were used to predict several optimization parameters. 1H-NMR confirmed that 98.5% of the SO was transformed into methyl ester biodiesel. Under the optimal reaction parameters of catalyst loading of 6 wt. %, methanol to oil molar ratio of 8 : 1, reaction duration of 3 h, and temperature of 70°C, an excellent biodiesel yield of 96.1% was obtained. The transesterification of SO to biodiesel displayed a significantly low activation energy (30.45 kJ mol-1), whereas, the turnover frequency of the transesterification reaction was found to be 0.0063 mol g-1 h-1. The catalyst showed excellent stability and was consecutively used for six cycles without a significant decline in catalytic activity. Based on life cycle cost analysis (LCCA), the estimated cost for producing 1 kg of biodiesel in this study comes out to be just $0.935, signifying its strong potential for widespread commercial use.

Evaluation of a hollow fiber membrane contactor reactor for reactive extraction in biodiesel production

A polypropylene hollow fiber membrane contactor reactor (HF-MCR) was used to evaluate the performance of a reactive extraction process for biodiesel production. The process involved the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol, catalyzed by sodium hydroxide. The experimental methodology assessed the impact of oil flow rate and methanol/oil molar ratio on the biodiesel (FAME) production rate, triglyceride reaction rate, and glycerin concentration in the final biodiesel product. The results demonstrated that, by employing a countercurrent configuration, is possible to extract the glycerin from the biodiesel-rich phase with methanol, achieving both the reaction and the separation stages in the same equipment. The best results were obtained at a methanol/oil molar ratio of 4:1 and an oil flow rate of 0.4 L h−1, leading to a triglyceride conversion rate of 0.14 mol h−1 and a FAME production rate of 0.24 mol h−1, equivalent to 34 % conversion and 56 % yield, respectively. The final biodiesel product showed a low concentration of glycerin, measuring only 0.06 % wt. This investigation highlights the potential of employing membrane contactors technology for the biodiesel production process, reducing the processing time by eliminating the biodiesel/glycerol separation stage, and therefore bringing down the load of downstream purification operations.

Sandwich like poly(ionic liquid)s functionalized microspheres: Efficient interfacial catalysts for preparation of biodiesel

Smart photo-responsive nanospheres azo-p(St-TMGILs)-OEt with sandwich like structure were prepared by introducing alkaline ionic liquids (TMG ILs) and a pioneering photo-responsive monomer (azo-TEPIC) on the surface of polystyrene microspheres by one-pot soap-free emulsion polymerization with free radical polymerization. Then the as-prepared nanoparticles were used as interfacial catalysts for constructing Pickering emulsions, wherein, azo-TEPIC was first obtained by using organosilane to functionalize azobenzene. Pickering emulsions can be reversibly switched between emulsification and breakage by alternate exposure to UV and visible light. The Pickering emulsion was used for the transesterification of soybean oil and ethanol to produce biodiesel and was found to give yields above 97% under mild reaction conditions with superior cycling stability of the catalyst.

Immobilization of Candida catenulata cells by surface-loading of an amino-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles and its application as the sustainable whole-cell biocatalyst for enzymatic biodiesel production

In this study, the intracellular lipases of Candida catenulata were examined as a whole-cell biocatalyst (WCB) of soybean oil transesterification and obtained a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 79.1%. To facilitate the biocatalyst recovery and improve its stability, the WCB was attached to magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles activated by a linear structure of polyethyleneimine (PEI) as the multi-amino-functionalized arm. The preparation procedure of the magnetic whole-cell biocatalysts (MWCBs) was optimized by considering the pH during immobilization (X1), the weight ratio of nanoparticles-to-cell (X2), and PEI concentration (X3) using the response surface methodology. The best optimal setting of the variables was determined at X1 of 6.1, X2 of 0.6, and X3 of 0.7 w% with the transesterification activity of 7.6 × 105 IU gbiocatalyst−1 gained a FAME yield of 78.4% after 3 h. The MWCBs showed an improvement in thermal stability where the optimal temperature was shifted from 34C to 38 °C and the deactivation energy was increased from 183.9 kJ mol−1 and 223.6 kJ mol−1 after the immobilization. The MWCBs displayed satisfactory sustainability in the repeated transesterification experiments and maintained 87.3% of the original activity after 10 cycles which was higher than the bare-WCB system with a recovery of 57.4%.

Biodiesel Production Using a Banana Peel Extract-Mediated Highly Basic Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst

Greener methods for the production of nanoparticles (NPs) are highly investigated to minimize the harmfulness of chemical synthetic processes. In this study, CaO (calcium oxide) NPs were synthesized using extracts of banana (Musa acuminata) leaves. The precipitate of Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) obtained from the precursor Ca(NO3)2 (calcium nitrate) was calcined at 900 °C in a muffle furnace to form CaO. The catalytic activity of the prepared CaO was studied in transesterification of soybean oil. From the 1H-NMR analysis, a high soybean oil conversion of 98.0% was obtained under the optimum reaction conditions of 8 wt% of catalyst loading, 2 h reaction time, and a 15:1 methanol to oil molar ratio at 65 °C temperature. 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and FT-IR spectroscopic studies of the product proved the formation of biodiesel. The CaO nanocatalyst was characterized using XRD, SEM-EDS, TEM, FT-IR, XPS, and BET analyses. The average diameter of the catalyst was determined as 46.2 nm from TEM analyses. The catalyst can be used successfully even after five active reaction cycles without substantial loss in the activity of the catalyst.

Microwave-assisted biodiesel production using ZIF-8 MOF-derived nanocatalyst: A process optimization, kinetics, thermodynamics and life cycle cost analysis

In this study a novel, high surface area, and recyclable nano-size solid basic catalyst is developed for the first time from ZIF-8 MOF-derived CaO/ZnO for the high-yielding transesterification of soybean oil (SO) to biodiesel with methanol under microwave irradiation. The chemical composition, texture and morphology of the catalyst were comprehensively characterized by FT-IR, SEM-EDS, XRD, TGA, XPS and BET. In addition, 1H NMR analyses were performed to confirm the conversion of soybean oil to biodiesel, whereas, GC–MS spectrum provide information about the chemical composition of the produced biodiesel. Kinetic studies are performed for the optimized catalyst and it follows the pseudo-first-order reaction. Thermodynamic analyses show that the transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel reaction is endothermic and not spontaneous. By using Response surface methodology (RSM), the optimization of parameters that affect the biodiesel yield is studied. The transformation of 1:20 soybean oil with methanol using CaO/ZnO catalyst (7 wt%) gives 97.4 % biodiesel yield for the transesterification at 90 °C for 50 min. The catalyst shows good reusability after 5 successive cycles demonstrating its industrial-scale applications. According to Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) the estimated price of 1 kg of biodiesel produced in this work is merely $1.11 showing high commercial applicability.

Green synthesis of CaO nanocatalyst using watermelon peels for biodiesel production

Biodiesel is becoming an alternative renewable energy source as it is safe, biodegradable, and eco-friendly. Biomass-based, heterogeneous CaO nanocatalyst, prepared using watermelon peel extract was exhibited to be an outstanding catalyst for biodiesel synthesis from the transesterification of soybean oil. The optimal reaction parameters were: methanol to oil molar ratio of 20:1, catalyst content of 8 wt.%, reaction time of 2.5 h, and temperature of 65 °C. Several analytical techniques such as XRD, XPS, FT-IR, BET, SEM, TEM, and TGA were used exhaustively to study the thermal stability, chemical composition, and morphology of the green CaO nanocatalyst. Furthermore, the prepared biodiesel was characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and GC. The catalyst showed admirable stability on repetitive reuse and was found to be stable up to 5th reused cycle where a decent biodiesel yield of 81.3% was obtained.

Biodiesel Preparation without a Cosolvent in an Opposite-Side Micro-Fixed-Bed Reactor

In the process of preparing biodiesel using microreactors, cosolvents and homogeneous catalysts are generally used, which adds to the separation cost. Hence, this study explored the use of an opposite-side feed micro-fixed-bed reactor with an inner diameter of 2 mm to produce biodiesel by the transesterification of soybean oil and methanol without any cosolvent, in which a fixed solid base acted as catalyst and obstacles. A biodiesel yield of 99.4% was achieved when the methanol-to-oil molar ratio was 12, the temperature was 70 °C, and the residence time was 8.05 min. A mixing study was conducted for this microreactor through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The results showed that the best mixing index could reach 0.94 within 25 mm (length). Then, the transesterification kinetics in this reactor were found to be consistent with the proposed pseudo-homogeneous secondary reaction model. With the kinetics data and mixed-model, the biodiesel yield could be predicted. The simulated results were consistent with the experimental data.