Transcorneal Electrical Stimulation Research Articles

Optimal transcorneal electrical stimulation parameters for preserving photoreceptors in a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa.

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202419110-00034/figure1/v/2024-03-08T184507Z/r/image-tiff Retinitis pigmentosa is a hereditary retinal disease that affects rod and cone photoreceptors, leading to progressive photoreceptor loss. Previous research supports the beneficial effect of electrical stimulation on photoreceptor survival. This study aims to identify the most effective electrical stimulation parameters and functional advantages of transcorneal electrical stimulation (tcES) in mice affected by inherited retinal degeneration. Additionally, the study seeked to analyze the electric field that reaches the retina in both eyes in mice and post-mortem humans. In this study, we recorded waveforms and voltages directed to the retina during transcorneal electrical stimulation in C57BL/6J mice using an intraocular needle probe with rectangular, sine, and ramp waveforms. To investigate the functional effects of electrical stimulation on photoreceptors, we used human retinal explant cultures and rhodopsin knockout (Rho-/-) mice, demonstrating progressive photoreceptor degeneration with age. Human retinal explants isolated from the donors' eyes were then subjected to electrical stimulation and cultured for 48 hours to simulate the neurodegenerative environment in vitro. Photoreceptor density was evaluated by rhodopsin immunolabeling. In vivo Rho-/- mice were subjected to two 5-day series of daily transcorneal electrical stimulation using rectangular and ramp waveforms. Retinal function and visual perception of mice were evaluated by electroretinography and optomotor response (OMR), respectively. Immunolabeling was used to assess the morphological and biochemical changes of the photoreceptor and bipolar cells in mouse retinas. Oscilloscope recordings indicated effective delivery of rectangular, sine, and ramp waveforms to the retina by transcorneal electrical stimulation, of which the ramp waveform required the lowest voltage. Evaluation of the total conductive resistance of the post-mortem human compared to the mouse eyes indicated higher cornea-to-retina resistance in human eyes. The temperature recordings during and after electrical stimulation indicated no significant temperature change in vivo and only a subtle temperature increase in vitro (~0.5-1.5°C). Electrical stimulation increased photoreceptor survival in human retinal explant cultures, particularly at the ramp waveform. Transcorneal electrical stimulation (rectangular + ramp) waveforms significantly improved the survival and function of S and M-cones and enhanced visual acuity based on the optomotor response results. Histology and immunolabeling demonstrated increased photoreceptor survival, improved outer nuclear layer thickness, and increased bipolar cell sprouting in Rho-/- mice. These results indicate that transcorneal electrical stimulation effectively delivers the electrical field to the retina, improves photoreceptor survival in both human and mouse retinas, and increases visual function in Rho-/- mice. Combined rectangular and ramp waveform stimulation can promote photoreceptor survival in a minimally invasive fashion.

Exploring the synergy of the eye-brain connection: neuromodulation approaches for neurodegenerative disorders through transcorneal electrical stimulation.

Exploring the synergy of the eye-brain connection: neuromodulation approaches for neurodegenerative disorders through transcorneal electrical stimulation.

The efficacy and safety of transcorneal electrical stimulation for patients with retinitis pigmentosa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a heterogeneous group of genetically inherited degenerative disorders characterized by progressive loss of peripheral vision. Tran's corneal electrical stimulation (TES) has been proposed as a treatment for various ocular conditions, but its mechanism remains uncertain. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the safety and efficacy of trans-corneal electrical stimulation (TcES) as a treatment for RP by comprehensively examining the available literature in medical databases. The literature of the related studies was retrieved from five databases including central, midline, scopus, directory of open access journals, and clinicalTrials.gov. All of the selected scholarly databases were extensively searched online for articles that were published between January 2019 and July 2023. TES was found to be safe for RP patients, with positive effects on the visual field area (VFA) and scotopic b-wave amplitude. It significantly attenuated the annual decline in the visual field hence effectively doubling its half-life from 10 to 20 years. No significant side effects were observed during TES. TES offers a promising treatment option for RP, with potential benefits in slowing disease progression and preserving vision. The OkuStim system and TES present an affordable and adaptable approach, with opportunities for patient self-administration. However, further studies with larger sample sizes and longer durations are needed to confirm these findings and optimize treatment parameters.

Treatments for Acute Nonarteritic Central Retinal Artery Occlusion: Findings From a Cochrane Systematic Review.

Many interventions for nonarteritic central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) are associated with serious complications and little effect on visual outcomes. We report on the findings of a Cochrane systematic review that searched seven databases for peer-reviewed articles reporting on treatments for acute nonarteritic CRAO. We assessed six randomized controlled trials, including interventions such as tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), isovolumic hemodilution, eyeball massage, intraocular pressure reduction, anticoagulation, vasodilation, oxygen inhalation, laser embolysis, transcorneal electrical stimulation, thrombolysis, pentoxifylline, and enhanced external counterpulsation. However, none of the randomized controlled trials demonstrated significant improvement in visual acuity at 1 month compared to observation, and some patients treated with t-PA experienced serious adverse effects including intracranial hemorrhage. Proposed interventions for acute nonarteritic CRAO may not be better than observation, but the evidence is uncertain. Larger, well-designed studies are necessary to determine the most effective management option for acute nonarteritic CRAO. [Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina 2023;54:xx-xx.].

An extraocular electrical stimulation approach to slow down the progression of retinal degeneration in an animal model

Retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) are characterized by unrelenting neuronal death. However, electrical stimulation has been shown to induce neuroprotective changes in the retina capable of slowing down the progression of retinal blindness. In this work, a multi-scale computational model and modeling platform were used to design electrical stimulation strategies to better target the bipolar cells (BCs), that along with photoreceptors are affected at the early stage of retinal degenerative diseases. Our computational findings revealed that biphasic stimulus pulses of long pulse duration could decrease the activation threshold of BCs, and the differential stimulus threshold between ganglion cells (RGCs) and BCs, offering the potential of targeting the BCs during the early phase of degeneration. In vivo experiments were performed to evaluate the electrode placement and parameters found to target bipolar cells and evaluate the safety and efficacy of the treatment. Results indicate that the proposed transcorneal Electrical Stimulation (TES) strategy can attenuate retinal degeneration in a Royal College of Surgeon (RCS) rodent model, offering the potential to translate this work to clinical practice.

Monocular transcorneal electrical stimulation induces ciliary muscle thickening in contralateral eye

Transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES) is used as therapy for retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and was suggested for assessing retinal sensitivity by determining phosphene thresholds, subjective luminance impressions caused by retinal stimulation. Further applications concerned the accommodation process, revealing an improved accommodative amplitude in presbyopic eyes after TES treatment. The respective changes of the ciliary muscle (CM), the structure most important for near vision, during TES are yet unknown. In a pilot study, we aimed to assess whether monocular TES leads to morphological and functional CM changes and whether central accommodation control is affected. Ten healthy, near-emmetropic adults participated in the trial (4 females, age 26.3 ± 3.6 years). Using a wavefront and a stimulus generator, a biphasic square-wave stimulus (2 s positive and 6 s negative amplitude) of 0 μA average current was produced and transferred to the eye by means of a Dawson-Trick & Litzkow electrode. Prior to the stimulation, an individual determination of phosphene thresholds served to define individual TES current amplitudes, which ranged between 60 and 100 μA. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging of the right eye's temporal ciliary muscle was performed before and during ipsi- as well as contralateral monocular TES in randomized order in the morning and afternoon of the same day. During imaging, subjects fixated a target at 4 m distance and refraction was simultaneously recorded via eccentric infrared photorefraction. OCT images were assessed using previously published custom-developed software, allowing the definition of selective CM thickness (CMT) readings, and plotting of continuous CMT profiles along the muscle border. CMT profiles revealed that both stimulations, on the ipsi- and contralateral eye, induced a thickening of the CM compared to the non-stimulated state. The selective CMT readings confirmed a significant increase with ipsi- (31 ± 30 μm; p = 0.010) and contralateral (25 ± 16 μm; p = 0.001) TES. However, refraction during far vision was not significantly affected by either stimulation (ipsilateral [n = 5]: median Δw/-w/o = 0 D; contralateral [n = 7]: Δw/-w/o = 0.13 D). Pupil size on average increased during TES, but without reaching significance (ipsilateral [n = 5] median Δw/-w/o = 0.23 mm, contralateral [n = 7] Δw/-w/o = 0.39 mm). Ipsilateral CM thickening could be explained by local changes within the stimulated ciliary muscle, such as increased blood flow or interstitial fluid rise induced by TES. However, the CMT increase in the right eye when TES was performed contralaterally, on the left eye, indicates an involvement of the central control circuit of accommodation. Further possible explanations for this finding are a synchronization of neuronal activities in the visual pathway, the release of vasoactive neuropeptides, or effects on the central blood pressure regulation. Given a neuromodulation effect on the CM function, TES might have implications for children with accommodation insufficiencies and as additional therapy in myopia control management, e.g. in combination with multifocal contact lens treatment. Our study is important for the clinical application of TES, and the outcome might add crucial knowledge to the current understanding of the accommodation process and inform research and treatment of both myopia and presbyopia.

Flexible bioelectronic innovation for personalized health management

Flexible bioelectronic innovation for personalized health management

Advances in transcorneal electrical stimulation: From the eye to the brain

The mammalian brain is reported to contain about 106-109 neurons linked together to form complex networks. Physiologically, the neuronal networks interact in a rhythmic oscillatory pattern to coordinate the brain's functions. Neuromodulation covers a broad range of techniques that can alter neuronal network activity through the targeted delivery of electrical or chemical stimuli. Neuromodulation can be used to potentially treat medical conditions and can serve as a research tool for studying neural functions. Typically, the main method of neuromodulation is to electrically stimulate specific structures in both the central and peripheral nervous systems via surgically implanted electrodes. Therefore, it is imperative to explore novel and safer methods for altering neuronal network activity. Transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES) has rapidly emerged as a non-invasive neuromodulatory technique that can exert beneficial effects on the brain through the eyes. There is substantial evidence to show that TES can change the brain oscillations in rodents. Moreover, the molecular data clearly shows that TES can also activate non-visual brain regions. In this review, we first summarize the use of TES in the retina and then discuss its effects in the brain through the eye-brain connection. We then comprehensively review the substantial evidence from electrophysiological, behavioral, and molecular studies on the role of TES on modulating neurons in the brain. Lastly, we discuss the implications and possible future directions of the research on TES as a non-invasive tool for neuromodulation of the brain via directly stimulating the mammalian eye.

Transcorneal Electrical Stimulation Dose-Dependently Slows the Visual Field Loss in Retinitis Pigmentosa.

To assess whether transcorneal electrical stimulation (TcES) current-dependently slows progressive loss of visual field area (VFA) in retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Data from 51 patients with RP who received monocular TcES treatment once weekly over 1 year in an interventional, randomized study have been analyzed a posteriori. Current amplitudes were 0.1 to 1.0 mA in the TcES-treated group (n = 31) and 0.0 mA in the sham group (n = 20). VFA was assessed in both eyes (semiautomatic kinetic perimetry, Goldmann targets V4e, III4e). Annual decline rate (ADR) of exponential loss and model-independent percentage reduction of VFA at treatment cessation were correlated to current amplitude. For V4e, mean ADR was -4.1% in TcES-treated eyes, -6.4% in untreated fellow eyes, and -7.2% in placebo-treated eyes; mean VFA reduction in TcES-treated eyes was 64% less than in untreated fellow eyes (P=0.013) and 72% less than in placebo-treated eyes (P=0.103). Individual VFA reductions correlated with current amplitude (P=0.043) and tended toward zero in patients who received 0.8 to 1.0 mA. For III4e, there was a marginally significant current-dependency of interocular difference in reduction (P=0.11). ADR and VFA reduction did not significantly correlate with baseline VFA. Loss of VFA (V4e) in patients with RP was significantly reduced in treated eyes compared to untreated eyes by regular use of TcES in a dose-dependent manner. No dependence of effects on the initial extent of VFA loss was found. TcES provides potential for preservation of visual field in patients with RP.

Interventions for acute non-arteritic central retinal artery occlusion.

Acute non-arteritic central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) occurs as a sudden interruption of the blood supply to the retina and typically results in severe loss of vision in the affected eye. Although many therapeutic interventions have been proposed, there is no generally agreed upon treatment regimen. To assess the effects of treatments for acute non-arteritic CRAO. We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (which contains the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Trials Register) (2022, Issue 2); Ovid MEDLINE; Embase.com; PubMed; Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature Database (LILACS); ClinicalTrials.gov; and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP). We did not use any date or language restrictions in the electronic search for trials. We last searched the electronic databases on 15 February 2022. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing any interventions with another treatment in participants with acute non-arteritic CRAO in one or both eyes. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard Cochrane methodology and graded the certainty of the body of evidence for primary (mean change in best-corrected visual acuity [BCVA]) and secondary (quality of life and adverse events) outcomes using the GRADE classification. We included six RCTs with 223 total participants with acute non-arteritic CRAO; the studies ranged in size from 10 to 84 participants. The included studies varied geographically: one in Australia, one in Austria and Germany, two in China, one in Germany, and one in Italy. We were unable to conduct any meta-analyses due to study heterogeneity. None of the included studies compared the same pair of interventions: 1) tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) versus intravenous saline; 2) t-PA versus isovolemic hemodilution, eyeball massage, intraocular pressure reduction, and anticoagulation; 3) nitroglycerin, methazolamide, mecobalamin tablets, vitamin B1 and B12 injections, puerarin and compound anisodine (also known as 654-2) along with oxygen inhalation, eyeball massage, tube expansion, and anticoagulation compared with and without intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA); 4) transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES) with 0 mA versus with 66% of the participant's individual electrical phosphene threshold (EPT) at 20 Hz (66%) versus with 150% of the participant's individual EPT (150%) at 20 Hz; 5) ophthalmic artery branch retrograde thrombolysis versus superselective ophthalmic artery thrombolysis; and 6) pentoxifylline versus placebo. There was no evidence of an important difference in visual acuity between participants treated with t-PA versus intravenous saline (mean difference [MD] at 1 month -0.15 logMAR, 95% confidence interval [CI] -0.48 to 0.18; 1 study, 16 participants; low certainty evidence); t-PA versus isovolemic hemodilution, eyeball massage, intraocular pressure reduction, and anticoagulation (MD at 1 month -0.00 logMAR, 95% CI -0.24 to 0.23; 1 study, 82 participants; low certainty evidence); and TES with 0 mA versus TES with 66% of EPT at 20 Hz versus TES with 150% of EPT at 20 Hz. Participants treated with t-PA experienced higher rates of serious adverse effects. The other three comparisons did not report statistically significant differences. Other studies reported no data on secondary outcomes (quality of life or adverse events). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The current research suggests that proposed interventions for acute non-arteritic CRAO may not be better than observation or treatments of any kind such as eyeball massage, oxygen inhalation, tube expansion, and anticoagulation, but the evidence is uncertain. Large, well-designed RCTs are necessary to determine the most effective treatment for acute non-arteritic CRAO.

Early results of transcorneal electrical stimulation therapy in three cases with cone dystrophy

Early results of transcorneal electrical stimulation therapy in three cases with cone dystrophy

Metabolic long‐term monitoring of transcorneal electrical stimulation in retinitis pigmentosa

AbstractPurpose: Transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES) is a new therapeutical approach for retinitis pigmentosa (RP). With progression of RP, degeneration of photoreceptors results in lower oxygen consumption of the retina. Retinal oximetry (RO) is a noninvasive method to analyse oxygen saturation in retinal vessels and has shown promising short‐term results as a therapy monitoring tool for TES. The aim of our study was to measure the long‐term effects of TES on RO parameters over a period of 3 years (3Y).Methods: A total of 18 eyes of 9 subjects (5♀ 4♂) suffering from RP were examined at baseline (BL), 6 months, and 3Y of TES (OkuStim®) treatment. TES was performed for 30 min once a week at 200% of the individual phosphene threshold simultaneously on both eyes. The oxygen saturation was examined at BL and following TES therapy with the oxygen saturation tool of the Retinal Vessel Analyser (IMEDOS Systems UG, Jena, Germany). The global oxygen saturation parameters (in %), within 1.0–1.5 optic‐disc diameters from the disc margin, in retinal arterioles (A‐SO2) and venules (V‐SO2) were measured and their difference (A‐V SO2) was calculated. In addition, we recorded the diameters in the main arterioles (D‐A) and venules (D‐V). ANOVA‐based linear mixed‐effects models were employed for statistical analysis using SPSS®.Results: After 3Y of TES treatment both the mean A‐SO2 (from 96.35 ± 12.76% to 100.89 ± 5.87%, p = 0.22) and V‐SO2 (from 62.20 ± 11.55% to 64.55 ± 8.24%, p = 0.77) increased slightly. The A‐V SO2, which corresponds to the oxygen consumption of the retina, presented also with a slight increment from 34.15 ± 9.68% at BL to 36.23 ± 7.71% without reaching statistical significance (p = 0.27). TES also did not appear to alter the vascular diameter parameters, D‐A and D‐V (p > 0.05).Conclusions: Our long‐term observations indicate that TES therapy in RP might lead to a slight increment in oxygen consumption of the retina. However, a larger cohort and longer duration may be needed to adequately power a follow‐up study and to confirm this trend reflecting a possible benefit of TES for RP.

Trans-Sclera Electrical Stimulation Improves Retinal Function in a Mouse Model of Retinitis Pigmentosa.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a photoreceptor-degenerating disease with no effective treatment. Trans-corneal electrical stimulation has neuroprotective effects in degenerating retinas, but repeated applications cause corneal injury. To avoid the risk of corneal damage, here we tested whether repetitive trans-sclera electrical stimulation (TsES) protects degenerating retinas in rd10 mice, a model of RP. At postnatal day 20 (P20), the right eyes of rd10 mice were exposed to 30 min of TsES daily or every other day till P25, at the amplitude of 50 or 100 μA, with zero current as the sham. Immunostaining, multi-electrode-array (MEA) recording, and a black-and-white transition box were applied to examine the morphological and functional changes of the treated retina. Functionally, TsES modified the retinal light responses. It also reduced the high spontaneous firing of retinal ganglion cells. TsES at 100 μA but not 50 μA increased the light sensitivities of ganglion cells as well as their signal-to-noise ratios. TsES at 100 μA increased the survival of photoreceptors without improving the visual behavior of rd10 mice. Our data suggest that repetitive TsES improves the retinal function of rd10 mice at the early degenerating stage, therefore, it might be an effective long-term strategy to delay retinal degeneration in RP patients.

Frequency Spectrum Analysis of Signals Used in Transcorneal Electrical Stimulation

The contribution of this research work focuses on understanding the biological behavior of time-varying electric fields, specifically in the eyeball, by proposing sensitive frequency ranges, specifically for primary open-angle glaucoma POAG and RP retinitis pigmentosa. These ranges were obtained from the analysis of the frequency spectrum of the signals used by other authors in transcorneal electrical stimulation TES therapies. This analysis was performed using an algorithm proposed in this work. The frequency spectra of the signals used in the TES were also compared with the frequency response of the cellular behavior evoked by genestein drug, in order to compare the frequency characteristics of the signals applied in the TES and the biological response of the drug. which causes the same effect in POAG.

An in-silico analysis of retinal electric field distribution induced by different electrode design of trans-corneal electrical stimulation

Objective. Trans-corneal electrical stimulation (TcES) produces therapeutic effects on many ophthalmic diseases non-invasively. Existing clinical TcES devices use largely variable design of electrode distribution and stimulation parameters. Better understanding of how electrode configuration paradigms and stimulation parameters influence the electric field distribution on the retina, will be beneficial to the design of next-generation TcES devices. Approach. In this study, we constructed a realistic finite element human head model with fine eyeball structure. Commonly used DTL-Plus and ERG-Jet electrodes were simulated. We then conducted in silico investigations of retina observation surface (ROS) electric field distributions induced by different return electrode configuration paradigms and different stimulus intensities. Main results. Our results suggested that the ROS electric field distribution could be modulated by re-designing TcES electrode settings and stimulus parameters. Under far return location paradigms, either DTL-Plus or ERG-Jet approach could induce almost identical ROS electric field distribution regardless where the far return was located. However, compared with the ERG-Jet mode, DTL-Plus stimulation induced stronger nasal lateralization. In contrast, ERG-Jet stimulation induced relatively stronger temporal lateralization. The ROS lateralization can be further tweaked by changing the DTL-Plus electrode length. Significance. These results may contribute to the understanding of the characteristics of DTL-Plus and ERG-Jet electrodes based electric field distribution on the retina, providing practical implications for the therapeutic application of TcES.

Transcorneal electrical stimulation enhances cognitive functions in aged and 5XFAD mouse models.

Dementia is a major burden on global health for which there are no effective treatments. The use of noninvasive visual stimulation to ameliorate cognitive deficits is a novel concept that may be applicable for treating dementia. In this study, we investigated the effects of transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES) on memory enhancement using two mouse models, in aged mice and in the 5XFAD model of Alzheimer's disease. After 3 weeks of TES treatment, mice were subjected to Y-maze and Morris water maze tests to assess hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. Immunostaining of the hippocampus of 5XFAD mice was also performed to examine the effects of TES on amyloid plaque pathology. The results showed that TES improved the performance of both aged and 5XFAD mice in memory tests. TES also reduced hippocampal plaque deposition in male, but not female, 5XFAD mice. Moreover, TES significantly reversed the downregulated level of postsynaptic protein 95 in the hippocampus of male 5XFAD mice, suggesting the effects of TES involve a postsynaptic mechanism. Overall, these findings support further investigation of TES as a potential treatment for cognitive dysfunction and mechanistic studies of TES effects in other dementia models.

TRANSCORNEAL ELECTRICAL STIMULATION THERAPY MAY HAVE A STABILIZATION EFFECT ON MULTIFOCAL ELECTRORETINOGRAPHY FOR PATIENTS WITH RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA.

To assess the effects of transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES) on several measures of visual function in retinitis pigmentosa. This prospective, randomized, fellow-eye-controlled study includes 30 eyes of 15 patients with retinitis pigmentosa. Each patient's eyes were randomly selected as treatment (TE) and control eye (CE), and 30 minutes/week TES was applied for 6 months. Patient evaluations were performed before and after TES, including comprehensive ophthalmological examination, visual fields, full-field and multifocal electroretinography, microperimetry, and optical coherence tomography. All parameters were compared before and after TES and between TE and CE. After TES, the mean signal amplitudes in multifocal electroretinography were stabilized in TE. The mean signal amplitudes in CE decreased in every ring, reaching significance in the fifth ring (847.15 ± 393.94 and 678.77 ± 282.66 nV, P = 0.039, before and after TES, respectively). The changes in the mean signal amplitudes of TE and CE were -0.38 ± 295.53 and -185.15 ± 332,62 nV in second (P = 0.046), 36.69 ± 326.4 and -143.38 ± 317,41 nV in fourth (P = 0.028), and -17.46 ± 333.07 and -168.38 ± 297,14 nV in fifth rings (P = 0.046), respectively. The decrease in the mean signal amplitudes between 2° and 20° midperipheral retina was significantly less in TE (-33.59 ± 225,1 nV) than CE (-205.56 ± 345.1 nV) (P = 0.011). There were no significant changes in other parameters. The progression in multifocal electroretinography might be stabilized with TES. Further studies with larger sample sizes and a longer follow-up are needed to conclude that TES reduces retinitis pigmentosa progression.

Antidepressant-like effects of transcorneal electrical stimulation in rat models

BackgroundGiven that visual impairment is bi-directionally associated with depression, we examined whether transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES), a non-invasive treatment for visual disorders, can ameliorate depressive symptoms. ObjectiveThe putative antidepressant-like effects of TES and the underlying mechanisms were investigated in an S334ter-line-3 rat model of retinal degeneration and a rat model of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS). MethodsTES was administered daily for 1 week in S334ter-line-3 and CUS rats. The effects of TES on behavioral parameters, plasma corticosterone levels, and different aspects of neuroplasticity, including neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and apoptosis, were examined. ResultsIn S334ter-line-3 rats, TES induced anxiolytic and antidepressant-like behaviors in the cylinder, open field, home cage emergence, and forced swim tests. In the CUS rat model, TES induced hedonic-like behavior and decreased behavioral despair, which were accompanied by reduced plasma corticosterone levels and upregulated expression of neurogenesis-related genes. Treatment with the neurogenesis blocker temozolomide only inhibited the hedonic-like effect of TES, suggesting the antidepressant-like effects of TES were mediated through both neurogenesis-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Furthermore, TES was found to normalize the protein expression of synaptic markers and apoptotic Bcl-2-associated X protein in the hippocampus and amygdala in the CUS rat model. The improvements in neuroplasticity may involve protein kinase B (AKT) and protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathways in the hippocampus and amygdala, respectively, as demonstrated by the altered pAKT/AKT and pPKA/PKA ratios. ConclusionThe overall findings suggest a possible neuroplasticity mechanism of the antidepressant-like effects of TES.

Transcorneal Electrical Stimulation Induces Long-Lasting Enhancement of Brain Functional and Directional Connectivity in Retinal Degeneration Mice.

To investigate neuromodulation of functional and directional connectivity features in both visual and non-visual brain cortices after short-term and long-term retinal electrical stimulation in retinal degeneration mice. We performed spontaneous electrocorticography (ECoG) in retinal degeneration (rd) mice following prolonged transcorneal electrical stimulation (pTES) at varying currents (400, 500 and 600 μA) and different time points (transient or day 1 post-stimulation, 1-week post-stimulation and 2-weeks post-stimulation). We also set up a sham control group of rd mice which did not receive any electrical stimulation. Subsequently we analyzed alterations in cross-frequency coupling (CFC), coherence and directional connectivity of the primary visual cortex and the prefrontal cortex. It was observed that the sham control group did not display any significant changes in brain connectivity across all stages of electrical stimulation. For the stimulated groups, we observed that transient electrical stimulation of the retina did not significantly alter brain coherence and connectivity. However, for 1-week post-stimulation, we identified enhanced increase in theta-gamma CFC. Meanwhile, enhanced coherence and directional connectivity appeared predominantly in theta, alpha and beta oscillations. These alterations occurred in both visual and non-visual brain regions and were dependent on the current amplitude of stimulation. Interestingly, 2-weeks post-stimulation demonstrated long-lasting enhancement in network coherence and connectivity patterns at the level of cross-oscillatory interaction, functional connectivity and directional inter-regional communication between the primary visual cortex and prefrontal cortex. Application of electrical stimulation to the retina evidently neuromodulates brain coherence and connectivity of visual and non-visual cortices in retinal degeneration mice and the observed alterations are largely maintained. pTES holds strong possibility of modulating higher cortical functions including pathways of cognition, awareness, emotion and memory.

Transcorneal electrical stimulation reduces the annual rate of visual field decline in retinitis pigmentosa

AbstractPurposeIn retinitis pigmentosa (RP) the visual field area (VFA) declines exponentially. We investigated whether the annual decline rate (ADR) can be slowed by transcorneal electrical stimulation (TcES).MethodsWe conducted an a posteriori analysis of data from 51 adult patients with RP who participated in an interventional, randomized, single‐masked study (clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01837901; Schatz et al., 2017, IOVS 58(1)). Patients were randomized into 3 groups stimulated with 0 mA (sham stimulation), 150% or 200% of their phosphene threshold, respectively. Over one year, TcES was applied monocularly, 30 min per week with biphasic current pulses (OkuStim, 5 ms each phase, 20 Hz, 0.2 to 1.0 mA). VFA were repeatedly assessed in both eyes (Octopus 900, target V4e). VFA values were normalized to percentage of baseline value, transformed into the natural logarithm, averaged within groups, and subjected to a weighted linear regression analysis. ADR was calculated from the slope of best fit line for both eyes in the sham group (n = 20) and in the treated group (n = 31, 150% and 200% groups pooled).ResultsIn the sham group, for the stimulated eyes the ADR was 8.0% (F‐test for slope: p = 0.011) while for the non‐stimulated eyes it was 9.6% (p = 0.005). In the treated group, for the stimulated eyes the ADR was 3.4% (p = 0.276), and for the non‐stimulated eyes it was 7.0% (p = 0.035). The difference between the ADR in the stimulated and non‐stimulated eyes was evident when only eyes stimulated with >0.8 mA (n = 9) were included. The progression in the stimulated eyes had almost stopped, the ADR was 2.7% (p = 0.397) compared to 9.2% (p = 0.022) in the non‐stimulated eyes. The analysis is limited by data variability, sample size and observation period.ConclusionThe analysis showed that the ADR can be markedly slowed by TcES in a dose‐dependent manner. Thus, regular use of TcES is an effective therapeutic method for slowing or arresting disease progression in RP.