trans-Himalayan Ladakh Region Research Articles

Mentha choujunensis, a new species from Indian Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh

Mentha choujunensis (Lamiaceae), a new species from Suru valley of district Kargil in Ladakh, Trans-Himalaya, India is described here. The new species can be distinguished from its closest congeneric M. longifolia in possessing prostate stem, leaves petiolate and ovate to ovate-lanceolate, sparsely pubescent, trichomes 1-celled on adaxial side and 2-celled on abaxial side, base oblique, margin serrate, calyx less than half the length of corolla tube, 8–10 veined, calyx teeth reddish brown with distal trichomes 3–4 celled long and corolla white. Photo-illustrations, comparison of diagnostic characters of the new species with M. longifolia and taxonomic key for the Indian species under section Mentha are provided to facilitate field identification.

Food Production in Ergonomically Designed Unit with Low Energy Consuming Thick Film Hot Plate

The Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh is a cold desert where the temperature drops as low as -45°C, which makes the cultivation of fresh food almost impossible. The region is strategically very important as it borders two countries China and Pakistan. The unavailability of fresh food causes nutritional deficiency in the deployed troops and locals, affecting their performance. Cultivation of fresh food is very difficult due to the average low temperature and mountainous soil of the region. Transportation of fresh food to such forward locations causes decaying of nutrition besides the difficulty of reaching such snow-bound mountainous locations. Nutritious micro-greens grown in media under controlled conditions look perfect solutions for meeting nutritional requirements. The present study focuses on year-round cultivation of nutritious micro-green (2-3 times more nutritious than mature counterparts) with low energy consuming thick-film hot plate for necessary temperature maintenance in properly designed portable structures to reduce dependency on packaged food which are the causes of many diseases. The study involves the development of a thick film energy-efficient micro-climate maintenance technology-based system for the maintenance of temperature along with phase-wise development of suitable cultivation structure and standardization of the number of such plates and sizing of the portable unit.These hotplates produce heat based on the principle of Joule heating or resistive heating and the power of a hotplate is equal to I2R. The hotplates are capable of raising the surface temperature to 90°C –100°C at the expense of only 8W power consumption and maintenance of average temperature in the range of 18°C to 20°C at -25°C to -40°C outside ambient temperature. The region receives the highest solar irradiance along with annual average of 7-8 hours of sunshine duration and hence a solar-based technology can fulfill the energy supply of 8W with ease.The study revealed that a suitable temperature can be maintained for growing variety of nutritious micro-green in a triple layer-based multitier structure integrated with low energy consuming (~8 W), small (50.8 mm (x) 50.8 mm), efficient, and lightweight thick film technology.Thick-film hot plate integrated standardized unit is capable of producing an average of 1000grams/trial/unit in a short period of 8-12 days during the winter period of 6-8 months for the targeted supply of 8-10grams/person/day with total energy consumption of approximately 20-25Kw/trial at ~3350 m to ~5400 m Altitude.

Giant Aufeis in the Pangong Tso Basin: Inventory of a Neglected Cryospheric Component in Eastern Ladakh and Western Tibet

Cryosphere studies in High Mountain Asia (HMA) typically focus on glaciers, seasonal snow cover, and permafrost. As an additional and mostly overlooked cryosphere component, aufeis occurs frequently in cold-arid regions and covers extensive areas of the Trans-Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. This largely neglected cryosphere component generally forms in winter from repeated freezing of seepage or overflow. In this article, the occurrence of aufeis fields in the endorheic Pangong Tso Basin (PTB), with a total area of 31,000 km2, is inventoried and examined. Based on a semi-automatic remote sensing approach using Sentinel-2 imagery, about 1000 aufeis fields were detected in the spring of 2019, covering a total area of approximately 86 km2 and with an average individual size of 0.08 km2, while the largest field covered an area of 14.8 km2. A striking contrast between the northern and southern portions of the PTB characterized the spatial distribution of large aufeis fields. All large (>0.5 km2) and 13 persisting aufeis fields were located along broad valleys in the northern portion. Furthermore, a multi-temporal comparison between 1994 and 2023 shows that the number of remaining aufeis fields in autumn varied between 8 and 29, with a maximum in 2019. Their total area ranged between about 0.3 km2 in 1994 and 2023 to about 1.2 km2 in 2015 and 2019. This study complements recent aufeis inventories from the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh and closes the gap to the Tibetan Plateau.

Nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity of Urtica hyperborea: A phytofood of Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India

Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. ex Wedd., a perennial plant of Urticaceae family is considered as a wild vegetable in the mountainous region of Ladakh. Due to its application in many forms of traditional culinary in every household during the harsh winter season, the plant ensures the food security. However, the nutritional composition and phytochemical analysis of U. hyperborea responsible for these beneficial features have not been explored widely. The present study aims to determine the nutritional composition (e.g., macromolecules, pigments, minerals, phenolics and flavonoid contents), antioxidant activity and the phytochemical analysis of this plant species present in Ladakh, India. The radical scavenging and antioxidant potential of the plant were evaluated by assays like 2,2‒diphenyl‒1‒picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl (ºOH), and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) for different extracts prepared in water, methanol, ethyl acetate, and petroleum ether. Macromolecules such as protein, carbohydrate, total phenolic and flavonoid contents in U. hyperborea were found to be 62.28±6.67, 170.80±3.98, 24.47±0.39 and 5.43±0.97 mg g-1, respectively. Similarly, dried powder of U. hyperborea was found to be rich in different mineral contents such as potassium, magnesium, sodium, manganese, zinc and iron. Among the various solvents used for exploring scavenging and antioxidant potential, aqueous extracts showed highest activity with 79.2% in DPPH assay as compared to other extracts. Similar trend was observed for other assays where aqueous extracts exhibited higher activity followed by methanolic, ethyl acetate and petroleum ether extracts. Significant positive linear correlations were observed between the radical scavenging/antioxidant activity of aqueous extracts and their content of phenolic/flavonoid compounds. The identification of phenolic compounds such as coumarin, quercetin, and ferulic acid confirm the antioxidative nature of the plant. Overall, rich macromolecule and mineral contents, as well as higher radical scavenging/antioxidant activities in aqueous extracts of U. hyperborea revealed that the plant has significant potential to be utilized as a phytofood source in harsh environmental conditions.

An updated checklist of the vascular flora of the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India

In meeting the challenges of biodiversity conservation, the taxonomic documentation of floristic diversity needs priority, particularly in data-deficient regions of the world. In this study, we present a comprehensive and updated checklist on the vascular flora of Ladakh, a region located in the remote Indian Trans-Himalaya. The checklist, based on field surveys over the last decade, herbarium studies, and a rigorous review of literature, records 1810 taxa (1702 species and 108 infra-specific taxa) belonging to 530 genera in 91 families from the region. The angiosperms are represented by 1772 taxa belonging to 508 genera in 77 families. The dicots contributed 1413 taxa (1320 species and 93 infra-specific taxa), while the monocots contributed 359 taxa (345 species and 14 infra-specific taxa) to the checklist. Likewise, the gymnosperms are represented by 11 taxa, and the pteridophytes (ferns) are represented by 27 taxa. The family Asteraceae contributes the largest number of 277 taxa, followed by Poaceae with 221 taxa. The flora in the region is dominated by 1668 herbs, followed by 100 shrubs, 34 trees and 8 climbers. In terms of lifespan, there are 1370 perennials, 411 annuals and 29 biennials. The checklist will not only serve as a useful reference for researchers, policymakers, and other stakeholders but is also an important tool for guiding biodiversity conservation efforts and sustainable use of the unique and valuable plant resources in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh.

Identification and prioritisation of ecosystem services based on the socio-economic perspectives of local people in a trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India

Mountain ecosystems provide numerous services vital for the existence of humankind globally. The present study was conducted in the Ladakh region of India to evaluate the socio-cultural values of the ecosystem services provided by the mountainous region. Questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions were used for data collection. It was observed that the respondents identified provisioning and cultural services easily compared to regulating and supporting services. Among services, fresh water and grazing services were valued 5-rating score on a Likert scale of 1–5 by more than 90% of respondents. Likewise, 80% of respondents have a 5-rating score for water retention and regulation, water purification, aesthetic and recreation and ecotourism services. A similar result was observed when the priority of ecosystem services for villagers was discussed through focus group discussions. All respondents viewed freshwater, grazing, and aesthetic services as priority ecosystem services, whereas recreation and ecotourism were prioritised in four villages, water retention and regulation, and water purification in two villages. Using bivariate correlation, the study of interactions among ecosystem services (between services of the same category) demonstrated strong positive to moderate negative correlations. Similarly, the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test indicate that socio-economic factors, including gender, income, and education, have a notable impact (p < 0.05) on most of the services. This suggests that respondents' socio-economic backgrounds influence the values assigned to the services. However, the decline of crucial ecosystem services over the last two decades, as highlighted by participants in the in-depth interviews, raises alarm. Integrating socio-cultural values of ecosystem services while formulating any regional developmental policy could empower the policy-makers to take more informed, eco-friendly actions.

Medicinal plants traditionally used in the health care practices by the indigenous communities of the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India

Ethnopharmacological relevanceLadakh, “the land of high-rising passes,” is a cold arid desert located in the India's northernmost part of the Trans-Himalayan region. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in this fragile ecosystem is an important part of the primary healthcare system, particularly in remote areas where modern medical facilities are not fully operational. There is a need to update the traditional information on medicinal plants from time to time to understand any addition of plants or uses to assist in developing new drugs through pharmacological and phytochemical studies. Aim of the studyThe study was conducted to document the traditional knowledge and current therapeutic practices of the indigenous communities of Ladakh. Besides, the study strives to evaluate previous studies from Ladakh to identify plants that have not been previously reported for medicinal use. Material and methodsEthnomedicinal information was collected from 350 local informants through open and semi-structured questionnaires and field surveys in 35 villages of 8 regions of Ladakh. The primary data were analyzed for use reports (UR) and the informant consensus factor (ICF). The reported diseases were classified according to the International Classification of Primary Care-2 (ICPC-2). New reported medicinal plants and unreported medicinal uses in this study were identified and compared to 36 prior studies conducted in Ladakh. ResultsIn the study, 176 medicinal plants belonging to 45 families and 131 genera were reported to treat 116 diseases of 16 (ICPC-2) groups with a total of 4841 use reports. Based on the highest use reports (UR), the most utilized species were Thymus linearis Benth. (134), followed by Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. (127) The highest informant consensus factor (ICF) was reported for Pregnancy, Childbearing, and Family Planning (ICF = 1) followed by respiratory (ICF = 0.91), and digestive (ICF = 0.90) disorders. Based on the comparative literature review, a total of 518 plant species (502 previously reported plus 16 newly cited) are being used in the Ladakh region. A total of 133 use reports for 16 newly cited plants using 30 diseases were recorded. The highest degree of overlapping of medicinal plants and uses for medicines was recorded in regions with comparable ethnicity, and shorter geographical distances. Based on the IUCN Red List, recorded medicinal plants include 7 critically endangered, 9 endangered, and 13 vulnerable species. ConclusionLadakh's indigenous populations use a diverse range of medicinal plants to treat a variety of illnesses. The introduction of species and medicinal uses not previously cited in the primary health care system demonstrates that shared knowledge of traditional medicine among Ladakhi is still rich. The medicinal value of preferred medicinal plants has already been validated, but some medicinal plants lack scientific validation. We recommend further scientific studies on Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf,Anaphalis nepalensis var. monocephala (DC.) Hand.-Mazz., Allardia nivea Hook. f. & Thomson ex C.B. Clarke, Atriplex hortensis L., Eriophyton tibeticum (Vatke) Ryding, Iris lactea Pall. and Rheum webbianum Royle.

Hydrochemical investigation of groundwater in a trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India, using geochemical modelling and entropy technique.

Evaluating the hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality status is vital to understand the sources and extent of groundwater contamination. Chemometric analysis, geochemical modelling and entropy technique were explored to delineate the hydrogeochemistry of groundwater in the trans-Himalayan region. Analysis of hydrochemical facies revealed that 57.14, 39.29, and 3.57% of samples were Ca-Mg-HCO3-, Ca-Mg-Cl- and Mg-HCO3- water types, respectively. Gibbs diagrams illustrate the effects of the dissolution of carbonates and silicates during weathering on groundwater hydrogeochemistry. The PHREEQC modelling depicted that most of the secondary minerals are supersaturated except for halite, sylvite, and magnetite which are undersaturated and in equilibrium with nature. Multivariate statistical techniques, including principal component analysis, were applied for source apportionment indicating that the hydrochemistry of the groundwater was mainly controlled by geogenic sources (rock-water interaction) along with secondary pollution through increased anthropogenic sources. Heavy metal accumulation in groundwater depicted the order of Cd > Cr > Mn > Fe > Cu > Ni > Zn. EWQI analysis revealed that none of the samples fell into excellent and good categories. In total, 92.86% of groundwater samples were in an average category while the rest of the samples (7.14%) were unfit for drinking. This study will provide baseline data and a scientific framework which can be used in source apportionment studies, predictive modelling and efficient management of water resources.

Invasive Cirsium arvense displays different resource-use strategies along local habitat heterogeneity in thetrans-Himalayan region of Ladakh.

Climate change and anthropogenic pressures have resulted in a significant shift in the invasion susceptibility and frequency of non-native species in mountain ecosystems. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Family: Asteraceae) is an invasive species that spreads quickly in mountains, especially in the trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh. The current study used a trait-based approach to evaluate the impact of local habitat heterogeneity (soil physico-chemical properties) on C. arvense. Thirteen plant functional traits (root, shoot, leaf, and reproductive traits) of C. arvense were studied in three different habitat types (agricultural, marshy, and roadside). Functional trait variability in C. arvense was higher between, than within habitats (between different populations). All the functional traits interacted with habitat change, except for leaf count and seed mass. Soil properties strongly affect C. arvense's resource-use strategies across habitats. The plant adapted to a resource-poor environment (roadside habitat) by conserving resources and to a resource-rich environment (agricultural and marshy land habitat) by acquiring them. The ability of C. arvense to use resources differently reflects its persistence in introduced habitats. In summary, our study shows that C. arvense invades different habitats in introduced regions through trait adaptations and resource-use strategies in the trans-Himalayan region.

Distribution and natural history notes on the herpetofauna of Ladakh, India

The Himalayas is the highest and youngest mountain range in the world. It provides unique habitat characteristics and is home to a unique assemblage of flora and fauna. There is very little information on the herpetofauna and their ecology in the trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh. Ladakh, located in an area of rain shadow, is characterized by extreme weather, climate, and terrain and relatively lower species richness. The region’s elevation ranges from 2,700 m to over 7,000 m a.s.l. and the annual precipitation is ~90–110 mm while the temperature ranges from -30 oC in winters to 30 oC in the summers.

Thermal heritage and wellness tourism development in the trans – Himalayas using GIS site suitability analysis

ABSTRACT This study aims to incorporate satellite remote sensing techniques and GIS-Suitability Analysis into a multidisciplinary approach to identify appropriate sites for developing wellness tourism in the Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh. In the suitability analysis of wellness tourism, five criteria, including topography, land use, land cover, distance from roads, and proximity to thermal heritage, were extracted from previous literature. Data were analyzed using the “Weighted Overlay” command in the ArcGIS 10.8 Software, and potential tourism sites, level of suitability, and rate of coverage were determined. Results reveal that out of the total area, 18.6% was moderately suitable, 5.6% was suitable, 2.7% was most suitable, 64.7% was marginally suitable, whereas 8% of the land was least suitable for wellness tourism. Consequently, the chosen criteria could enhance the wellness tourism scenario of the study area, and wellness tourism development is possible in the future with remote sensing and GIS. The methodology proposed helped identify wellness sites by linking the criteria deemed necessary with the existential resources of the province. This research discusses some conceptual aspects of wellness tourism, identifies potential sites for wellness tourism development in Ladakh, and highlights the novel application of GIS-Site Suitability for effective wellness tourism planning.

Topographical Impact on Snow Cover Distribution in the Trans-Himalayan Region of Ladakh, India

This article presents the distribution of seasonal snow cover in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh over the observation period of 2000–2019. Seasonal snow cover area and duration have been monitored and mapped based on the MODIS Normalised Difference Snow Index (NDSI). Using different MODIS cloud removal algorithms, monthly mean cloud-covered areas have been reduced to 3%. Pixel-wise approaches using Mann–Kendall (MK) and Sen’s slope trend tests allow to assess seasonal and annual trends of snow cover days (SCD) and snow cover area (SCA) across seven delineated subregions of Ladakh. Analyses include the impact of topographical parameters (elevation, slope, aspect). Overall, the mean annual SCA amounts to 42%, varying from 15% in August to 71% in February. However, large differences of SCA have been detected between and within subregions. The trend analysis of SCA shows a non-significant, slight increase for summer as well as for the entire year and a decrease for spring and winter seasons. The SCD trend analysis indicates more pixels with a significant increase than a decrease. In total, 12% of all pixels show an increasing trend in summer, 6% over the entire year, 3% in autumn, and 2% in spring and winter, whereas less than 2% of all pixels show a decreasing trend in all seasons. The results are important for regional irrigated agricultural production and freshwater supply in the context of climate change.

Land Use and Land Cover Change Detection Using Remote Sensing in the Trans Himalayan Region of Ladakh, India

Mapping and monitoring of land use and land cover types along with detection of change are essential in the Trans Himalaya to understand landscape dynamics and assist with planning for sustainable development. This study attempts to monitor land use and land cover in Ladakh and identifies patterns of spatio-temporal change in land use using multi-temporal satellite images. Landsat images for three different time-periods (1999, 2009, and 2019) were used to quantify changes between 1999 and 2019. Eight major classes were identified on satellite images: barren land, agriculture, built-up, waterbody, wetland, range land, scrub land, and snow/glacier. Results indicate that major land use in Ladakh is barren land in all three time-periods and that built-up area has increased significantly by 123 sq km (800%) between 1999 and 2019. The possible causes for change in the region include geopolitical importance of the region, growth of the tourist sector with increase in number of tourists, and change of socio-cultural lifestyle.

Distribution dynamics of Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M.Johnst. and associated plant communities in Trans-Himalayan Ladakh region in relation to local livelihoods under climate change

The impact of climate change on the mountain ecosystems globally can be better sensed through monitoring of structural shifts in vegetation vis-à-vis livelihoods of mountain communities. Here, we report the distribution pattern of an ecologically vital species, Arnebia euchroma, and its co-occurring communities. The species is considered as an indicator of ecosystem health and is linked to human wellbeing in mountain systems in the Trans-Himalayan range of Ladakh. Through intensive field surveys for two years, we recorded 127 species belonging to 41 families associated with A. euchroma across habitats, majority of which are herbaceous with perennial life cycle. The hemicryptophytes were found to be the most dominant followed by the geophytes and phanerophytes. Highest average importance value index (IVI) was found to be for A. euchroma (37.93) as against very low IVI values for 41.73% of the total flora, which reflects the need for conservation. Our generalized linear model results demonstrate the role of A. euchroma in maintaining and enhancing the maturity index of the communities with increasing altitude. The low maturity index of the communities indicates the influence of anthropogenic pressures and rather harsh environmental conditions. The Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis correlated the investigated communities geographic features and microclimates to identify the dominant taxa and unique species assemblages in the local flora. Since A. euchroma and its associated assemblages are linked to local livelihoods in Ladakh, yet quite vulnerable to climate change, the importance of our results for future research and long-term monitoring in the Trans-Himalayan mountains is discussed.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Geodetic Mass Changes of Glaciers With Varying Debris Cover in the Pangong Region of Trans-Himalayan Ladakh, India Between 1990 and 2019

Glaciers across the Himalayan arc are showing varying signs of recession. Glaciers in the eastern and western parts of the Himalayan arc are retreating more rapidly as compared to other regions. This differential retreat is often attributed to climatic, topographic, and geologic influences. The glaciers in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh are believed to be relatively stable as compared to other parts of the western Himalaya. The present study ascertained the area changes and frontal retreat of 87 glaciers in the Pangong Region between 1990 and 2019 using satellite data. The geodetic mass changes were also assessed using SRTM and TanDEM-X digital elevation models of 2000 and 2012 respectively. Besides, the glacier outlines were delineated manually and compared with existing regional and global glacier inventories that are available over the region. The GlabTop model was used to simulate the glacier-bed overdeepenings of four glaciers that are associated with a proglacial lake. The study also analyzed the impact of topographic influences and varying debris cover on glacier recession. This analysis indicated deglaciation of 6.7 ± 0.1% (0.23% a−1) from 1990 to 2019 over the Pangong Region with clean-ice glaciers showing a higher retreat (8.4 ± 0.28%) compared to the debris-covered glaciers (5.7 ± 0.14%). However, the overall recession is lower compared to other parts of northwestern Himalayas. The glacier recession showed a positive correlation with mean glacier slope (r = 0.3) and debris cover (r = 0.1) with bigger size glaciers having retreated at a lesser pace compared to smaller ones. This underpins the need for in-situ data about debris thickness to precisely ascertain the role of debris on glacier recession in the Trans-Himalayan Ladakh where debris thickness data is absent. The mean glacier elevation did not indicate any influence on glacier recession. From 2000 to 12, the glaciers lost an ice mass amounting to 0.33 ± 0.05 m we. per year. The formation of four new proglacial lakes, although small (&amp;lt;6 ha), need to be monitored using remote sensing data while the infrastructure development activities should not be permitted given glacial lake outburst flood risk.

Imperiled Prancing Crane: Population Status and Breeding Performance of Black-Necked Crane Grus nigricollis in Trans-Himalayan Ladakh Region

Imperiled Prancing Crane: Population Status and Breeding Performance of Black-Necked Crane Grus nigricollis in Trans-Himalayan Ladakh Region

Irrigation timing as a glucosinolate alteration factor in radish (Raphanus sativus L.) (Gya Labuk and Tsentay Labuk) in the Indian Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh

Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) is a root vegetable with Glucosinolates (GSLs), which is a secondary metabolite that has conducive to human health and promotes anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities in cells. We conducted a study to determine if irrigation timing has an impact on the GSL properties and pungency of two radish cultivars from Ladakh, which are locally called Gya Labuk and Tsentay Labuk. The four irrigation timing as the morning (6.00 AM), noon (12.00 P M), and evening (4.00 PM) and control (anytime) irrigated twice a week. The GSL profile of roots and leaves was done using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Through this process, we identified nine GSL compounds in root and leaf of radish, which included five that were aliphatic and four that were indole glucosinolate compounds. The most abundant GSL in radish root and leaf was Glucoraphasatin (GRH), which accounts for 89.38–89.51 % and 74.85–88.58 %of the total GSL in the two cultivars grown in Ladakh i.e. Gya Labuk and Tsentay Labuk respectively. The total GSL ranged from 120.12 ± 4.89–225.22 ± 79.77 μmol g-1 in Gya Labuk root and 121.17 ± 6.79–296.68 ± 23.53 μmol g-1 in Tsentay Labuk root. The GRH value ranged from 46.43 ± 13.52–174.94 ± 8.71 μmol g-1 in the leaves of Gya Labuk and ranged from 64.82 ± 5.70–149.12 ± 7.09 μmol g-1 in the leaves of Tsentay Labuk. In our investigation, we found that noon irrigated radish had higher total GSL content in both root and leaves as compared to ones irrigated at other times. We also found that dark coloured radish (Gya Labuk) root had a lower concentration of GSL than light coloured ones (Tsentay Labuk). The highest GSL was observed in Tsentay Labuk with light coloured roots while the low GSL was in Gya Labuk with dark pink coloured root.

Phenological and Pomological Characteristics of Native Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) Cultivars of Trans Himalayan Ladakh India

Seven local apple cultivars of the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region were studied for phenological and pomological characteristics. Early and extended flowering was observed. Flowering began 12 days earlier as compared to Royal Delicious, a popular introduced cultivar. The cultivars attained fruit maturity between mid-August to early September, which is one month earlier than Royal Delicious. Apples of the Ladakh region are soft (6.1±1.1 kg cm-2) and small in size (60.1±29.1 g). The unique characteristics observed in apples of the Ladakh region, such as early flowering and early fruit maturity offer an opportunity for exploring the native cultivars for future breeding programs for the development of early maturing cultivars.

Recession of Gya Glacier and the 2014 glacial lake outburst flood in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India

This study assessed spatiotemporal changes at Gya Glacier, the associated development of a proglacial lake, and reconstructed the 2014 outburst flood that struck Gya Village in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India. This study analyzed and for the first time modeled a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) event in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh. Glacier and glacial lakes changes were quantified using remote sensing data supplemented with field observations. Glacier ice-thickness and glacier-bed overdeepenings were modeled using a shear-stress based model, GlabTop (Glacier-bed Topography). The reconstruction of the 2014 GLOF and the potential hazard assessment of Gya Lake were carried out using the hydrodynamic model HEC-RAS; results were validated against ground-collected data. Temporal evaluation of satellite data revealed a 45.6% loss in the total glacier area between 1969 and 2019. The earliest snow-free image available for the region shows that a proglacial lake existed as early as 1969 with an area of 3.06 ha. The lake has expanded to ~11 ha in 2019. Results from the GlabTop model suggest that the lake could grow further up to 12 ha in the future. Field-based geomorphic indicators suggest that the 2014 GLOF event resulted from a piping failure of the frontal moraine destroying numerous agricultural fields, some buildings, downstream infrastructure, and eroded natural channel embankments. The reconstruction of the event revealed that 25% of the lake waters drained out with a peak discharge of 470 m3s−1, inundating an area of ~4 km2 around Gya Village. However, a complete breaching of the terminal moraine could result in an event that would be 5.5 times larger than the 2014 GLOF. Therefore, this study could be useful not only in planning disaster-resilient infrastructure around proglacial lake environments in the cold-arid Ladakh but also in framing mitigation plans to reduce risk for vulnerable downstream communities.

Growing Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata L.) in Cold Winter under Passive Solar Greenhouse in Trans Himalayan Ladakh Region

Greenhouse experiments were conducted in three seasons (2017-18, 2018-19, 2019-20) to study the feasibility to grow cabbage, a temperature sensitive crop, during freezing winter months at high altitude (elevation 3340 m) trans-Himalayan Ladakh region. Three varieties viz. Golden Acre, Videshi and Megaton were studied under an improvised passive solar greenhouse. Head was formed in all the varieties despite the temperature extremes (0.0±1.6 to 39.5±0.9 ºC) inside the greenhouse. The mean marketable head weight ranged from 428.6±72.1 g to 831.2±193.0 g, depending on the variety. The mean head weight of Golden Acre was 831 g, which is 15-fold higher as compared to that of the crop grown under traditional greenhouse in Ladakh. However, the marketable head weight was lower as compared to the yield potential of the varieties. It took 133-163 days for Golden Acre to reach maturity for harvest as compared to the expected 60-65 days. Dramatic declines in intercellular CO2 concentration, photosynthesis rate and water-use efficiency were observed at 2:00 PM, which indicated that the plants were severely affected by high temperatures inside the greenhouse. High temperature inside the greenhouse resulted in bolting, head-splitting and loose head forming, and it ranged from 8-36% of the crop depending on the year and variety. The study suggested that cabbage can be successfully grown under improvised passive solar greenhouse during severe winter months in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh.