Parental Trajectories Research Articles

Posttraumatic stress symptoms in parents of children with newly diagnosed cancer: 1-year trajectories and relationship variables as predictors.

The way in which parental posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) unfold in the first year after a cancer diagnosis in their child is poorly understood. The aims of this study were to identify parental PTSS trajectories and to examine couple-related predictors (dyadic coping and we-disease appraisals), sociodemographic predictors (education and sex), and medical predictors (child's physical impairment) of trajectory membership. A 1-year prospective study was conducted, and 157 parents of children newly diagnosed with cancer were assessed. PTSS was measured with the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale for DSM-5 (PDS-5) at 3-6 weeks (T1), 6 months (T2), and 12 months (T3) after the diagnosis. The trajectories were identified with Latent Class Growth Analysis, the predictors were explored with binomial logistic regression. Two distinct trajectories were found. The majority of parents (86.0%) followed a low PTSS trajectory, characterized by initially low scores that slightly decreased over 12 months. In contrast, 14.0% of parents displayed a stable, high PTSS trajectory. A high trajectory of child's physical impairment and low scores in parental dyadic coping were significantly associated with the likelihood of a high parental PTSS trajectory. The findings provide new insights into the critical period of the first year after a child's cancer diagnosis. While most parents display a resilient, low PTSS trajectory, a minority consistently experience high PTSS levels. Child's physical impairment and dyadic coping should be considered as predictors for early identification of vulnerable parents. Incorporating dyadic coping in parental support following a childhood cancer diagnosis could be beneficial for parental mental health.

Exploring the importance of family socio-economic position on the association between parental BMI and offspring BMI trajectories

PurposeWe aimed to investigate the associations between parental BMI and offspring BMI trajectories and to explore whether the parent-offspring BMI growth trajectory association differed according to family SEP or social mobility. MethodsWe used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Children’s weight and height were collected from 1 to 18 years. Parents’ height and weight were reported pre-pregnancy. We assessed family SEP by measuring parents’ and grandparents’ educational attainment, social class, and social mobility by changes in education attainment across generations. Multilevel models were used to develop trajectories and assess patterns of change in offspring BMI, to associate parental BMI with these trajectories, and explore whether these associations differed by family SEP and social mobility. Results13,612 children were included in the analyses. The average BMI of offspring whose parents were overweight or obese was higher throughout childhood and adolescence, compared to those with parents of normal BMI. Parental and grandparental low SEP were associated with higher child BMI, but there was little evidence of modification of parent-offspring associations. For example, at age 15 years the predicted mean BMI difference between children of overweight or obese mothers versus normal-weight mothers was 12.5 % (95 %CI: 10.1 % to 14.7 %) and 12.2 % (95 %CI: 10.3 % to 13.7 %) for high and low grandparental SEP, respectively. DiscussionThese findings strengthen the evidence that higher parental BMI and lower family SEP were associated with higher offspring BMI, but we did not observe strong evidence that family SEP modifies the parental-offspring BMI association.

Trajectories of maternal parenting stress and adolescent behavioral symptoms in unmarried families: The role of family immigration status

BackgroundMaternal parenting stress during childhood may have important influences on offspring internalizing and externalizing behaviors during adolescence in unmarried households, but it is unclear whether effects differ across different trajectory patterns of maternal parenting stress and for native-born vs. immigrant families. MethodsUsing data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we identified trajectory patterns of maternal parenting stress from ages 1–9 years using semi-parametric group-based trajectory modeling. We used negative binomial regression models to estimate associations between maternal parenting stress trajectories and adolescent behavioral symptoms at age fifteen. ResultsFive maternal parenting stress trajectory groups were identified among the 1982 unmarried families included in this study, representing consistently low (9.2 %), consistently mild (54.2 %), moderate and decreasing (14.4 %), moderate and increasing (16.0 %) and consistently high (6.2 %) levels of maternal parenting stress. For adolescent internalizing symptoms, all maternal parenting stress trajectory groups exhibited higher symptoms compared to the consistently low group: IRR for consistently mild: 1.21 (95 % CI: 0.98–1.56); IRR for moderate/decreasing: 1.34 (95 % CI: 1.04–1.74); IRR for moderate/increasing: 1.62 (95 % CI: 1.28–2.13); and IRR for consistently high: 1.74 (95 % CI = 1.29–2.41). Similar results were observed for adolescent externalizing symptoms. Stronger effects of maternal parenting stress trajectories on adolescent externalizing symptoms were observed among native-born vs. immigrant families. LimitationsDifferential attrition and same-source bias may lead to under- or over-estimation of the associations of interest. ConclusionsInterventions targeting unmarried families with elevated maternal parenting stress during childhood may reduce behavioral symptoms in adolescence.

Harsh parenting trajectories from childhood through adolescence and socioemotional competences at age 18: 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study

BackgroundLimited research has explored the course of harsh parenting practices throughout childhood and adolescence and its impact on socioemotional competences from a longitudinal perspective. This study examined the association between harsh parenting trajectories and socioemotional competences at age 18. MethodsData from the 2004 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort study, originally comprising 4231 live births, were used. Harsh parenting was measured using the parent-report version of the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scale at ages 6, 11, 15 and 17 years, and trajectories were identified using a group-based modelling approach. Socioemotional competences were emotion regulation, assessed by the Emotional Regulation Index for Children and Adolescents; self-esteem, measured by the self-report Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale; prosocial behaviour and peer relationship problems, both assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Multivariate linear and Poisson regression models were applied to examine the effects of harsh parenting trajectories on socioemotional competences, adjusting for confounding variables. ResultsWe identified three trajectories: a “low harsh parenting” trajectory (49.7 %), a “moderate harsh parenting” (44.7 %), and a “high harsh parenting” trajectory (5.6 %). Compared to those belonging to the low harsh parenting trajectory group, adolescents who experienced either a moderate or high harsh parenting trajectory exhibited lower scores in emotion regulation, self-esteem, and prosocial behaviour scales, along with higher scores of peer relationships problems. LimitationsData on harsh parenting at 15 and 17 years were available only for a sub-sample. ConclusionsOur study extends the evidence of the adverse effects of persistent harsh parenting on socioemotional competences during adolescence.

Adaptation process of parents experiencing the coming out of their child

AbstractObjectiveThe objective of the study was to analyze the process of adaptation in parents residing in Poland whose child has revealed their gay/lesbian sexual orientation or gender identity and determine the stages and conditions of this process.BackgroundWhen a young person discloses their gay/lesbian sexual orientation or transgender identity, their parents' reaction has a significant impact on their psychological well‐being and on whether their family system can survive.MethodThis study, carried out from July to November 2022, involved conducting 21 interviews with parents residing in Poland whose child (whether a younger child, an adolescent, or an emerging adult) had come out about their gay/lesbian sexual orientation or transgender identity.ResultsAnalysis of interviews conducted during the research revealed the main stages of the process of parents' adaptation to their child coming out: initial attribution, coming out, secondary attribution, confrontation, and acceptance. For individual stages, we categorized reactions, which complement the description of an individual trajectory of adaptation.ConclusionIt is our opinion that for parents experiencing their child's coming out, the concept of their adaptation should be expanded to include a theory of grief and psychological crisis, highlighting the parents' need for cognitive‐functional validation of the situation.ImplicationsFuture research should seek to individualize the adaptation trajectories of parents whose child has come out about their sexual orientation or gender identity and relate these analyses to both mothers' and fathers' parental roles.

“Accepting a Transgender Child Is to Improve the Way One Lives on This Planet”: Support and Acceptance Trajectories of Parents of Transgender and Gender Diverse Children

Research on how parents’ experiences with transgender and gender diverse (TGD) children and adolescents is sparse, especially in Latin American countries, like Colombia. This study aimed to describe the processes that parents follow when recognizing and raising TGD children and adolescents. A qualitative study was carried out with a convenience sample of 14 parents, through a semi-structured interview about significant beliefs and behaviors regarding their TGD children. Exploratory inductive narrative analyses of the transcripts and the trajectories of beliefs and behaviors of the parents interviewed were conducted. Four significant phases were identified among the representative themes: (1) initial recognition of the child’s TGD status, (2) mobilization, (3) acceptance and coping, and (4) looking ahead. The results are discussed in relation to international research and recommendations for applications of the findings are made.

Understanding family dynamics of obesity: Do parents and children lose and gain weight together?

Obesity is prevalent among children and adults. Yet, understanding the relationship between parent and child weight trajectories is limited. (1) Examine the association between parent/child undesirable body mass index (BMI) category change. (2) Assess whether parental BMI category predicts child modified BMI z-score (mBMIz) annual change. We conducted a cross-sectional study of weight trajectories of 3821 parent-child dyads between March 2020 and December 2021 within the NYC Health + Hospitals system. Undesirability of child and parental BMI category change and the magnitude of mBMIz change by parental BMI are analysed. Of 3821 children (mean [SD] baseline age, 9.84 [3.51]), 1889 were female. Of the 3220 parents (mean [SD] baseline age, 39.9 [8.51]), 2988 were female. Most children (53.52%) and parents (81.94%) presented with overweight and obesity. Undesirable BMI change in children was associated with concordant change in parents (adjusted OR: 1.7, 95% CI [1.45, 2.01], adjusted p < 0.001). Children of parents with obesity (adjusted coef: 0.076, 95% CI [0.004, 0.147], p < 0.038) and severe obesity (adjusted coef: 0.1317, 95% CI [0.024, 0.239], adjusted p < 0.016) demonstrated greater change in mBMIz than those of parents with normal weight or underweight. Parents and children have concordant weight trajectories, and public health interventions targeting both populations are essential.

Who's doing more and when? Gender, parenting, and housework trajectories.

Drawing on five waves of longitudinal survey data (N = 520, 51% female, 39% with a university degree, 90% White), this study examined trajectories of women's and men's contributions to cooking, kitchen cleaning, grocery shopping, house cleaning, laundry, and overall housework from Age 25 to 50 years and explored time-invariant (traditional gender role attitudes, homemaker mother, mother and father education assessed at Age 18) and time-varying (raising children at Ages 25, 32, 43, and 50 years) predictors of housework trajectories. Growth curve analyses revealed that women contributed more to all housework tasks than men at Age 25, a gender gap maintained to Age 50. Housework increased to Age 32 and stabilized until Age 43 before declining by Age 50 for women's and men's laundry, women's kitchen cleaning, grocery shopping, and overall housework, and men's house cleaning. There was no change in women's and men's trajectory of cooking meals, women's house cleaning, and men's contributions to kitchen cleaning, grocery shopping, and overall housework. Traditional gender role attitudes, having a homemaker mother, and mother's and father's education inconsistently predicted women's and men's trajectories. Raising children, however, was consistently linked with within-person fluctuations in housework. When raising children, women contributed more than average to housework, whereas when men were raising children, they contributed less than normal. The results highlight a gendered pattern of housework evident in the twenties and persisting well into midlife, with parenthood widening the gap. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Abstract P511: Trajectories of Modifiable Risk Factors, Cardiac Function and Incident Heart Failure in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Cohort

Introduction: Modifiable risk factors are known to associate with incident heart failure (HF), however, their longitudinal impacts have not been fully understood. Independent trajectory clusters of risk factors can help provide insights to the development of HF. Hypothesis: We hypothesize that unfavorable trajectory clusters are associated with increasing risk of HF. Methods: Clinical risk factors, including body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure (SBP), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), heart rate, total cholesterol (TCH), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) were measured in Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study at 5 consecutive visits (1987-2013). Trajectories were built for each clinical risk factor in participants with at least 3 time points using group-based trajectory modeling approach. Controlling for clinical risk factors, trajectory groups and their associations with post visit 5 incident HF were assessed via Cox proportional regression. Sex stratified analyses were conducted to assess effect modification. Results: Among 4,548 participants (mean age 75, 18.1% Blacks), 390 developed HF after visit 5 (median follow = 8.4 years). Five distinct clusters were identified for SBP, LDL, TCH, heart rate, and three clusters for BMI and HDL. Compared to the lowest cluster, normal-fast rising SBP cluster (HR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.2, 2.5), severely obese BMI cluster (HR = 1.9, 95%CI 1.4, 2.6), and normal-fast rising heart rate cluster (HR = 1.7, 95%CI 1.1, 2.5) had higher risk of developing HF. Interestingly, suboptimal-stable LDL cluster (HR = 0.6, 95%CI 0.4, 0.8) was associated with lower risk of HF compared to the optimal-stable LDL cluster. When stratified by sex (female =59.1%, male = 40.9%), the identified trajectories shared similar patterns with the parent trajectories. The effects on HF were consistent between sex groups; however, most significant associations were diminished in males. Conclusion: We identified distinct trajectories that capture long-term effects of risk factors. Unfavorable clusters significantly associated with increased risk of HF, except LDL, suggesting further investigation on lipids control for HF prevention.

Parenting young children during COVID-19: Parenting stress trajectories, parental mental health, and child problem behaviors.

Parenting stress reflects a discrepancy between a parent's perception of their resources, the demands of their child's needs, and the caregiving relationship and contexts (Abidin, 1992). Parenting stress can increase the risk of issues in the parent-child relationship, as well as child behavioral and emotional outcomes (Neece et al., 2012; Spinelli et al., 2021). Chronic stressors, such as living through the COVID-19 pandemic, have the potential to increase the demands of parenting and thus parenting stress. Using latent growth curve modeling, we examined parenting stress trajectories of 298 American parents with young children (Mage = 15.02 months, range = 1-34 months) over the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. We also examined the effects of parental mental health on parenting stress, and the effects of parental mental health and parenting stress on child problem behaviors using data gathered through the Prolific survey platform. Parental mental health, measured by depressive symptoms Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-10, anxiety symptoms Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), and overall stress levels 10-item Perceived Stress Scale, was related to higher initial parenting stress index-short form. Changes in parenting stress over time were linked with higher levels of children's problem behaviors (CBCL). Child temperament was also related to initial parenting stress. Lower levels of household income were linked with higher levels of parental mental health symptoms and higher rates of parenting stress increases over time. These results highlight the importance of considering the well-being of all family members in child outcomes, and the ways in which different experiences and resources during the COVID-19 pandemic affect parental and child well-being. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Informal care trajectories over the lifecourse in the Netherlands

This study sets out to identify and describe informal care trajectories over the lifecourse in the Netherlands, and evaluate theoretical ideas on informal care trajectories. We conduct latent profile analysis on a sample of 949 respondents who retrospectively reported on all informal care episodes they had ever experienced, based on the number of episodes, age at first caring episode, duration and overlap. We identified four informal care trajectories – the one-time partner, mid-aged parental, serial and lifelong care trajectories – and assessed their differences in felt obligation, intensity and task complexity. The theoretical ideas of Keating and colleagues find support in our empirical evidence.

Referent-oriented interactions in infancy: A naturalistic, longitudinal case study from an English-speaking household

Caregivers use a of combination labeling, pointing, object grasping, and gaze to communicate with infants about referents in their environment. By two years of age, children reliably use these referent-oriented cues to communicate and learn. While there is some evidence from lab-based studies that younger infants attend to and use referent-oriented cues during communication, some more naturalistic studies have found that in the first year of life, infants do not robustly leverage these cues during dyadic interactions. The current study examined parent and infant gaze, touching, pointing, and reaching to referents for a wide range of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other early-learned words during 59 one-hour head-camera recordings sampled from one English-learning infants’ life between 6 and 12 months of age. We found substantial variability across individual words for all cues. Some variability was explained by referent concreteness and the grammatical category of the label. The parent’s touching of labeled referents increased across months, suggesting that parent-infant-referent interactions may change with development. Future studies should investigate the trajectories of specific types of words and contexts, rather than attempting to discover possibly non-existent universal trajectories of parent and infant referent-oriented behaviors.

Mexican-Origin Children's Trajectories of Ethnic-Racial Pride from Childhood through Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Mothers and Fathers' Trajectories.

Ethnic-racial pride (positive feelings about one's ethnic-racial group) is critical to healthy identity development across the lifespan. Research on ethnic-racial pride development among Latinx populations has focused exclusively on youth, without regard to pride development amongst parents and relations between pride within family units. Using multivariate Latent Growth Curve Modelling among 674 Mexican-origin youth and their parents (673 mothers; 437 fathers), the trajectory of youth's pride from 5th grade through emerging adulthood (14 years/12 waves of data) as well as relations with parental pride trajectories were examined. Respondents' pride generally decreased from waves 1 to 7 (~age 11-17 in youth) and increased after wave 7. Youth's and mothers' trajectories were unrelated, but complex associations emerged between youth's and fathers' trajectories. This study supports the dynamic nature of ethnic-racial pride across distinct life stages and underscores the complex interplay of youth and parental pride trajectories, emphasizing the pivotal role parents may play in co-shaping identity development alongside their children.

Parental mental health trajectories over the COVID-19 pandemic and links with childhood adversity and pandemic stress.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created significant disruptions, with parents of school-age children being identified as a vulnerable population. Limited research has longitudinally tracked the mental health trajectories of parents over the active pandemic period. In addition, parents' history of adverse (ACEs) and benevolent (BCEs) childhood experiences may compound or attenuate the effect of COVID-19 stressors on parental psychopathology. To identify distinct longitudinal trajectories of parental mental health over the COVID-19 pandemic and how these trajectories are associated with parental ACEs, BCEs, and COVID-19 stress. 547 parents of 5-18-year-old children from the U.K., U.S., Canada, and Australia. Growth mixture modelling was used to identify trajectories of parental mental health (distress, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, and substance use) from May 2020 to October 2021. COVID-19 stress, ACEs, and BCEs were assessed as predictors of mental health trajectories via multinomial logistic regression. Two-class trajectories of "Low Stable" and "Moderate Stable" symptoms were identified for psychological distress and anxiety. Three-class trajectories of "Low Stable", "High Stable", and "High Decreasing" symptoms were observed for post-traumatic stress. Reliable trajectories for substance use could not be identified. Multinomial logistic regression showed that COVID-19 stress and ACEs independently predicted membership in trajectories of greater mental health impairment, while BCEs independently predicted membership in trajectories of lower psychological distress. Parents experienced mostly stable mental health symptomatology, with trajectories varying by overall symptom severity. COVID-19 stress, ACEs, and BCEs each appear to play a role in parents' mental health during this unique historical period.

Parental Divorce and Trajectories of Alcohol Consumption in Men: A Genetically Informative Perspective.

Much of what is known about parental divorce and adult alcohol outcomes comes from cross-sectional comparisons of those who did and did not experience parental divorce. In contrast, far less is known about whether and how parental divorce is associated with alcohol consumption trajectories. We used a longitudinal perspective to investigate the associations between parental divorce and men's alcohol consumption trajectories as well as a genetically informative approach to evaluate whether the pattern of genetic and environmental influences on these trajectories differed for men who did and did not experience parental divorce. The sample included 1,614 adult men from a population-based twin registry in Virginia. Measures of parental divorce (before age 16) and alcohol consumption (between ages 10 and 40) came from interviews and life history calendars. Data were analyzed with growth curve and longitudinal biometric variance component models. In total, 11% of the sample experienced parental divorce. Parental divorce was associated with higher alcohol consumption intercepts that were sustained over time but was not associated with the linear slope or quadratic curvature of men's alcohol consumption trajectories. Longitudinal biometric variance components modeling indicated that genetic influences on alcohol consumption were higher in adolescence and young adulthood among those who experienced parental divorce compared with those who did not. Parental divorce is associated with the shape and relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on men's alcohol consumption trajectories from adolescence through adulthood.

Trajectories of parent well-being in children with drug-resistant epilepsy.

This longitudinal cohort study aimed to identify trajectories of parent well-being over the first 2 years after their child's evaluation for candidacy for epilepsy surgery, and to identify the baseline clinical and demographic characteristics associated with these trajectories. Parent well-being was based on parent depressive and anxiety symptoms and family resources (i.e., family mastery and social support). Parents of 259 children with drug-resistant epilepsy (105 of whom eventually had surgery) were recruited from eight epilepsy centers across Canada at the time of their evaluation for epilepsy surgery candidacy. Participants were assessed at baseline and 6-month, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up. The trajectories of parents' depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and family resources were jointly estimated using multigroup latent class growth models. The analyses identified three trajectories: an optimal-stable group with no/minimal depressive or anxiety symptoms, and high family resources that remained stable over time; a mild-decreasing-plateau group with mild depressive and anxiety symptoms that decreased over time then plateaued, and intermediate family resources that remained stable; and a moderate-decreasing group with moderate depressive and anxiety symptoms that decreased slightly, and low family resources that remained stable over time. Parents of children with higher health-related quality of life, fathers, and parents who had higher household income were more likely to have better trajectories of well-being. Treatment type was not associated with the trajectory groups, but parents whose children were seizure-free at the time of the last follow-up were more likely to have better trajectories (optimal-stable or mild-decreasing-plateau trajectories). This study documented distinct trajectories of parent well-being, from the time of the child's evaluation for epilepsy surgery. Parents who present with anxiety and depressive symptoms and low family resources do not do well over time. They should be identified and offered supportive services early in their child's epilepsy treatment history.

Trajectories of Parental Warmth and the Role They Play in Explaining Adolescent Prosocial Behavior

Adolescent prosocial behavior suggests social competence and it is associated with greater parental warmth yet the experience of warmth through child and adolescent development is not well understood as it relates to such prosocial behavior. A nationally representative dataset from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children cohort was used. The analyses involved multiple waves beginning when children were aged 4–5. The main analyses used a sample of 2723 adolescents aged 16–17 years (Mean, S.D. = 16.45, 0.50; 49.2% female, 50.8% male). Parental warmth trajectories (from ages 4–5 through 16–17 years) were created and used to explore the accumulated effect of a lifecourse of parental warmth on adolescent prosocial behavior as measured when adolescents were aged 16–17 years. There were three trajectories described as, consistent (28.7%), slight decline (51.4%), and declining warmth (19.8%). These were associated with prosocial behavior; adolescents with a slight decline in warmth were 2.2 times less likely than those with consistent warmth to have the highest prosocial behavior. Consistent parental warmth likely provides greatest benefit for increased prosocial behavior in mid-adolescence.

A Three-Dimensional Hail Trajectory Clustering Technique

Abstract Recent advances in hail trajectory modeling regularly produce datasets containing millions of hail trajectories. Because hail growth within a storm cannot be entirely separated from the structure of the trajectories producing it, a method to condense the multidimensionality of the trajectory information into a discrete number of features analyzable by humans is necessary. This article presents a three-dimensional trajectory clustering technique that is designed to group trajectories that have similar updraft-relative structures and orientations. The new technique is an application of a two-dimensional method common in the data mining field. Hail trajectories (or “parent” trajectories) are partitioned into segments before they are clustered using a modified version of the density-based spatial applications with noise (DBSCAN) method. Parent trajectories with segments that are members of at least two common clusters are then grouped into parent trajectory clusters before output. This multistep method has several advantages. Hail trajectories with structural similarities along only portions of their length, e.g., sourced from different locations around the updraft before converging to a common pathway, can still be grouped. However, the physical information inherent in the full length of the trajectory is retained, unlike methods that cluster trajectory segments alone. The conversion of trajectories to an updraft-relative space also allows trajectories separated in time to be clustered. Once the final output trajectory clusters are identified, a method for calculating a representative trajectory for each cluster is proposed. Cluster distributions of hailstone and environmental characteristics at each time step in the representative trajectory can also be calculated. Significance Statement To understand how a storm produces large hail, we need to understand the paths that hailstones take in a storm when growing. We can simulate these paths using computer models. However, the millions of hailstones in a simulated storm create millions of paths, which is hard to analyze. This article describes a machine learning method that groups together hailstone paths based on how similar their three-dimensional structures look. It will let hail scientists analyze hailstone pathways in storms more easily, and therefore better understand how hail growth happens.

Trajectories of parents' gendered play attitudes during early childhood and implications for children's gender development.

This study examined associations between parents' gendered attitudes about play and children's gender development. The sample was 501 families from a large US city followed annually for 4 years (501 mothers, 383 fathers; 69% White, 16% Latinx, 8% African American; children Mage = 5.67 months, 53% boys). Latent trajectories examined change in parents' attitudes toward same- and other-gender play during first 4 years of the child's life. On a subsample (n = 252), trajectories were examined in relation to children's later gender-typed preferences and gender constancy. Parents grew more gender-flexible in their attitudes, particularly parents of boys. Trajectories reflecting more stereotypic attitudes showed some associations (small in magnitude) with children's gender-typed preferences and gender constancy by age 4.

Trajectories of parental posttraumatic stress disorder and children's mental health following Super Typhoon Lekima: The mediating role of feeling of safety.

Several studies have examined the impact of parents' posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on their children's mental health, but few have evaluated the role of parents' specific PTSD trajectories. The aim of this study was to assess the mechanisms underlying distinct trajectories of parental PTSD that affect children's PTSD and depression through the feeling of safety. The final sample comprised 242 dyads of parents and their children who experienced Super Typhoon Lekima in 2019. All participants were surveyed at three time points after the typhoon: 3 months (T1), 15 months (T2), and 27 months (T3). Parental PTSD symptoms at three time points and children's PTSD, depression, and feeling of safety at T3 were analyzed. Four parental PTSD trajectories were identified: recovery, resilience, delayed, and coping. Compared with the resilient group, children of parents with delayed PTSD trajectories reported higher levels of depression at T3, while children of parents in the coping group were more likely to experience severe PTSD at T3. Children of parents in the recovery group, with a reduced feeling of safety, exhibited more severe depression and PTSD at T3, whereas children of parents in the delayed group were at an increased risk of PTSD at T3. These findings highlight the heterogeneity of parental PTSD trajectories following natural disasters and their distinct effects on children's PTSD and depression. Furthermore, feeling of safety emerges as a crucial mechanism in this process.