Trajectories Of Girls Research Articles

Prenatal single and combined exposure to phthalates associated with girls’ BMI trajectory in the first six years

Evidence of the influence of prenatal phthalate exposure on childhood longitudinal obesity markers is limited. Nested on the Ma’anshan birth cohort study, 990 mother-daughter pairs were included. Seven phthalate metabolites were determined in urine collected in each trimester. Each child underwent a physical examination from birth to 6 years of age twelve times. Latent class growth models were used to identify three trajectories of girls’ body mass index (BMI). Logistic regression, quantile g-computation and Bayesian kernel machine regression models analyzed the relationships of prenatal exposure to individual and mixed phthalates with girls’ body mass index (BMI) trajectory. Compared to the “lowest trajectory” class, prenatal average concentrations of mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP, ORcrude = 2.095, 95 % CI = 1.014–4.328) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP, ORcrude = 2.336, 95 % CI = 1.022–5.338) during pregnancy were associated with an increased probability of being in the “highest trajectory” class. The average concentration of DEHP (ORcrude = 1.879, 95 % CI = 1.002–3.522) was associated with an increased probability of being in the “moderate trajectory” class. Stratified analyses by trimester of pregnancy mainly showed that third-trimester exposure to monoethyl phthalate (MEP, ORadjusted = 1.584, 95 % CI = 1.094–2.292), mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP, ORadjusted = 2.885, 95 % CI = 1.367–6.088), MEHHP (ORadjusted = 2.425, 95 % CI = 1.335–4.407), DEHP (ORadjusted = 2.632, 95 % CI = 1.334–5.193) and high molecular weight phthalate (ORadjusted = 2.437, 95 % CI = 1.239–4.792) was associated with an increased probability of being in the “highest trajectory” class. However, the mixture of phthalates was not significantly related to the girl’s BMI trajectory. In conclusion, in utero exposure to phthalates, including MEP and DEHP metabolites (MEHHP and MEOHP), was significantly associated with early childhood high BMI trajectories in girls. The third trimester of pregnancy seemed to be the window of vulnerability to phthalate exposure for girls’ high BMI trajectory at periods of prenatal development. No evidence supported a significant relationship between combined exposure to phthalate metabolites and girls’ high BMI trajectory.

Is the Development of Family Functioning Dependent on Trajectories of Antisocial Behavior? A TRAILS Study

Where previous studies have found consistent links between family factors and antisocial behavior, it is important to examine this relationship from a developmental perspective and account for heterogeneous antisocial development. In the present study, our goal was twofold: (1) identify and examine trajectories of self-reported antisocial behavior, and (2) compare the intercepts and slopes of family functioning of adolescents with different trajectories of antisocial behavior. We used a large national representative sample of 2230 Dutch boys and girls who we followed from approximately 10 to 22 years. We applied Latent class growth modeling to identify antisocial trajectories for boys and girls separately, across which the intercepts and slopes of family functioning were compared. We found four antisocial trajectories for boys and three antisocial trajectories for girls, which mostly corresponded with the trajectories found in previous literature. Further, we found that family functioning did not differ as a function of membership to a particular trajectory of antisocial behavior, neither on baseline measures nor on changes of family functioning across adolescence. Within this specific sample of adolescents, these results suggest that family functioning, as perceived by parents, remain stable regardless of antisocial behavior. Future research, in addition to using general family functioning measures, should also examine day-to-day family interactions, preferably also accounting for the perspective of the adolescent.

Gendered Pathways? Gender, Mediating Factors, and the Gap in Boys’ and Girls’ Substance Use

A gender gap in alcohol and drug use exists but is somewhat smaller than the gender gap in other forms of delinquency. This article extends studies that examine the gender–delinquency relationship to substance use in particular and estimate the extent to which major risk and protective factors mediate the association between gender and alcohol and marijuana use. The authors simultaneously draw on two traditional delinquency theories, social learning and social control, and the feminist pathways perspective regarding victimizations. This gendered pathways approach highlights the extent to which gender influences life experiences and thus the trajectories of girls and boys. In a large sample of 8th to 12th graders, school bonds and victimizations accounted for much of the gender–substance use relationship, especially in the case of casual and binge drinking.