Clonal Growth Traits Research Articles

Capital and income breeders among herbs: how relative biomass allocation into a storage organ relates to clonal traits, phenology and environmental gradients.

Perennial herbs of seasonal climates invest carbon into belowground storage organs (e.g. rhizomes) to support growth when photosynthetic acquisition cannot cover demands. An alternative explanation interprets storage allocation as surplus carbon that is undeployable for growth when plants are limited by nutrients/water. We analysed relative investments to rhizomes to see to which of these explanations they align, and asked whether they scale with biomass of aboveground organs in individual species and whether clonal growth traits, phenology or environmental conditions explain investment among populations or species. We measured biomass of rhizomes, aboveground stems and leaves in 20 temperate herbaceous perennial species, each at two localities, establishing allometric relationships for pairs of organs. We correlated relative rhizome investment with clonal traits, environmental gradients and phenology, across species. For pairs of organs, biomass typically scales isometrically. Interspecific allocation differences are largely explained by phenology. Neither interspecific nor intraspecific differences were explained by clonal traits or environment. Storage organs of perennial herbs do not comprise deposition of carbon surplus, but receive greater allocation in capital breeders (early-flowering), than among income breeders (late-flowering) relying on acquisition during growing season. Capital and income breeders in plants deserve further examination of benefits/costs.

Genet dynamics and its variation among genets of a clonal plant Convallaria keiskei

In clonal plant populations, a number of genetically identical ramets form a genet. While coexisting ramets potentially perform independently, their behaviours not only depend on ages and sizes but are also constrained by genetic background. In this study, genet dynamics and its variability among neighbouring genets were investigated based on the ramet demography of each genet in Convallaria keiskei. Genet dynamics were first formulated as a matrix model with the two components of clonal growth (clonal reproduction) and survival‐transitions between ramet size classes. Then, a statistical estimation of the matrix elements was established using three datasets: aboveground demographic censuses, belowground directional rhizome connections and genetic identification of ramets. Finally, genet growth rates reflecting both the changes of clonal growth and ramet size growth were estimated and compared for fundamental demographic elements among genets. Over three years of aboveground annual censuses of a 28 × 2 m plot, 2021 ramets were identified as belonging to 28 genotypes. Belowground excavation detected 515 clonal fragments. Genet growth rate of three dominant genets varied with medians of 1.13, 1.02 and 1.05; 95% credible intervals of the posterior distributions did not overlap between the genet with the largest median and the others. The variation was caused primarily by differences in clonal growth rather than survival‐transitions between size classes. Clonal growth by branching was rarer than at the tips but contributed to the maintenance of the genet. Therefore, both clonal growth frequencies and connecting patterns of ramets caused the variation of genet dynamics and established genets persist for a long time through the positive growth rates, which would contribute to maintain a population. We also conclude that fundamental demographic elements relating to clonal growth traits (the features of individual genets) strongly impact genet dynamics.

Both Adaptability and Endophytic Bacteria Are Linked to the Functional Traits in the Invasive Clonal Plant Wedelia trilobata

The role of the interactions between endophytes and host plants is unclear in invasive plants from different geographical latitudes. In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between endophytic microbes and the functional traits of the invasive plant Wedelia trilobata. We explored the relationship between endophytes and the clonal growth traits of the invasive clonal plant Wedelia trilobata from different geographical latitudes using high-throughput sequencing technology and a common garden-planting experiment. We found that: (1) Different W. trilobata populations had similar endophytic fungi but different endophytic bacteria. However, no latitudinal variation pattern of the overall microbial community was found; (2) plant clonal growth performance (i.e., spacer length) was significantly correlated with endophytic bacterial diversity but not fungal diversity; and (3) the latitudinal variation pattern of the plant clonal growth performance of W. trilobata populations was found in pre-cultivated (i.e., wild) individuals but disappeared in post-cultivated W. trilobata. Our results suggest both environmental adaptability and the endophytic bacterial community are linked to the functional traits of the invasive clonal plant W. trilobata, and these functional traits tend to increase its invasiveness, which may enhance its invasion success.

Effect of clonal growth form on the relative performance of species in experimental communities over time

Due to competition for resources, the performance of plant species in communities is modified by traits affecting their efficiency in resource uptake and use. Clonal growth by stolons or rhizomes enables plants to spread laterally and to share resources among interconnected ramets; therefore, clonal growth represents an important trait that likely affects the competitive ability of species. We tested the effect of different clonal growth forms on the relative performance of plant species in communities of the Jena Biodiversity Experiment over a ten-year period. Clonal growth form did not have a significant effect on relative performance in early stages of the communities. Surprisingly, none of the clonal growth forms gained dominance over time, but the species with long rhizomes generally performed slightly better than the other species, particularly in communities of low diversity. The stoloniferous species performed better in communities with a higher proportion of nonclonals, suggesting complementarity of the light exploitation strategies of stoloniferous and nonclonal species. Our results show the importance of clonal growth traits for the competitive abilities of plants in the context of community development, species diversity and community composition, as well as the necessity of distinguishing among different clonal growth forms.

CLO-PLA: a database of clonal and bud-bank traits of the Central European flora.

This dataset presents comprehensive and easy-to-use information on 29 functional traits of clonal growth, bud banks, and lifespan of members of the Central European flora. The source data were compiled from a number of published sources (see the reference file) and the authors' own observations or studies. In total, 2,909 species are included (2,745 herbs and 164 woody species), out of which 1,532 (i.e., 52.7% of total) are classified as possessing clonal growth organs (1,480, i.e., 53.9%, if woody plants are excluded). This provides a unique, and largely unexplored, set of traits of clonal growth that can be used in studies on comparative plant ecology, plant evolution, community assembly, and ecosystem functioning across the large flora of Central Europe. It can be directly imported into a number of programs and packages that perform trait-based and phylogenetic analyses aimed to answer a variety of open and pressing ecological questions.

Reproduction by seed and clonality in plants: correlated syndromes or independent strategies?

Summary We examine the relationships of traits of seed reproduction to traits of clonal growth and bud banks. Although there are a number of functional differences between these sets of traits underlying two different modes of reproduction, they both constitute a response to ecological gradients, which makes them potentially interdependent. We performed phylogenetic regressions of seed traits and traits of bud banks and clonal growth across the Central European flora. We took Ellenberg indicator values and indices of responses to disturbance as information on the positions of species optima along important ecological gradients. The analyses show that there are almost no relationships between these two groups of traits. This contrasts with the existence of strong correlations within these groups of traits which indicate specific syndromes of seed reproduction and of clonality. Both seed traits and traits of bud banks and clonal growth show fairly strong phylogenetic conservatism. The absence of correlations between individual groups of traits is at least partly due to the fact that each trait group shows relationships to different parameters of species' niches. Bud bank traits are determined by the disturbance niche of the species, clonal traits by soil and climatic factors, while seed traits show only weak correlations with the examined environmental factors if phylogeny is taken into account. Synthesis. The absence of integrated syndromes that would cover both seed reproduction and clonality across the flora implies that there are no selective forces that would affect both trait groups simultaneously. Clonal and bud bank traits are more tightly linked to species' niches, presumably because they are selected by local population processes only, in contrast to seed traits, which play a role also in dispersal. As the phylogenetic conservatism of clonal traits is almost as strong as the phylogenetic conservatism of seed traits, these traits do not serve as an evolutionarily more flexible alternative to seed reproduction.

Ecological consequences of plant clonality.

Clonal plants are those that reproduce asexually by means of vegetative offspring that remain attached to the parent, at least until they establish. Clonal plant species are widespread, dominate a variety of habitats and probably play key roles in the maintenance of biodiversity, ecosystem function and biological invasion. For example, many of the most invasive introduced plants in the world are clonal. This makes it important to deepen our understanding of the ecology of clonal plants, including effects of clonality on ecosystem function, species abundance, plant performance in different habitats, capacity for evolution and invasiveness. The six papers in this Highlight explore these effects. The effects of clonality on ecosystem function have been under-studied. In a conceptual review, Cornelissen et al. (2014) discuss likely potential effects based on a response – effect trait framework, and call for research that links clonal traits to traits that affect carbon, nutrient and water cycling. In order to promote understanding of how clonality shapes species abundance, Herben et al. (2014) examine the relationships between plant traits and species abundance in 836 perennial, herbaceous species in Central Europe. Their results show that clonal growth traits explain a substantial proportion of variation in abundance, and that capacity for clonal growth and lateral expansion are positively correlated with abundance at both regional and local scales. Patterns of resource sharing between connected ramets vary between and within clonal species and may reflect selection for performance in different habitats. Using a spatially explicit, dynamic model, Oborny and Hubai (2014) test how the proportion of resource-rich patches in a heterogeneous environment determine the relative foraging efficiencies of clones in which parental ramets do or do not subsidize the growth of offspring in resource-poor patches. Not sharing is more efficient than sharing when more than half of patches are rich, but a mixed strategy is most efficient over a wide range of environments. While clonal integration is well known to increase growth in patchy habitats, the underlying physiological mechanisms remain elusive. Roiloa et al. (2014) test the effects of integration on photochemical efficiency, leaf spectral reflectance, photosynthesis and discrimination between isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in the wild strawberry Fragaria vesca. Their results provide novel evidence that clonal plants may preferentially transport specific forms of nitrogen between connected ramets. Potential for the evolution and local adaptation of clonal plant species might be limited if reproduction is mainly asexual. James and McDougall (2014) use microsatellite analysis and chromosome counts to document genetic diversity in all known populations of the clonal shrub Grevillea renwickiana. They find that triploidy has probably rendered the species exclusively asexual, but somatic mutation has generated diversity within clones. Introduced, invasive, clonal plants often spread both via seed dispersal and vegetative growth. Qi et al. (2014) document inhibition of seedling establishment under existing clones in the clonal, invasive plant Wedelia trilobata. Removal of adult plants fosters seedling establishment: important information for controlling the spread of this species. These six papers illuminate different aspects of the ecology of clonal plants and tackle current questions about the ecological consequences of clonality. We hope that this Highlight will stimulate further ecological research on clonal plants.

Clonal growth and plant species abundance

Both regional and local plant abundances are driven by species' dispersal capacities and their abilities to exploit new habitats and persist there. These processes are affected by clonal growth, which is difficult to evaluate and compare across large numbers of species. This study assessed the influence of clonal reproduction on local and regional abundances of a large set of species and compared the predictive power of morphologically defined traits of clonal growth with data on actual clonal growth from a botanical garden. The role of clonal growth was compared with the effects of seed reproduction, habitat requirements and growth, proxied both by LHS (leaf-height-seed) traits and by actual performance in the botanical garden. Morphological parameters of clonal growth, actual clonal reproduction in the garden and LHS traits (leaf-specific area - height - seed mass) were used as predictors of species abundance, both regional (number of species records in the Czech Republic) and local (mean species cover in vegetation records) for 836 perennial herbaceous species. Species differences in habitat requirements were accounted for by classifying the dataset by habitat type and also by using Ellenberg indicator values as covariates. After habitat differences were accounted for, clonal growth parameters explained an important part of variation in species abundance, both at regional and at local levels. At both levels, both greater vegetative growth in cultivation and greater lateral expansion trait values were correlated with higher abundance. Seed reproduction had weaker effects, being positive at the regional level and negative at the local level. Morphologically defined traits are predictive of species abundance, and it is concluded that simultaneous investigation of several such traits can help develop hypotheses on specific processes (e.g. avoidance of self-competition, support of offspring) potentially underlying clonal growth effects on abundance. Garden performance parameters provide a practical approach to assessing the roles of clonal growth morphological traits (and LHS traits) for large sets of species.

Species traits and plant performance: functional trade‐offs in a large set of species in a botanical garden

Summary Earlier research has established a number of relationships between community structure and plant traits. However, these relationships are mediated by demographic processes that are constrained, but not determined, by the trait values, and involve responses of plants to their environments. In particular, life‐history costs and associated trade‐offs need to be examined at the level of demographic processes such as plant survival and reproduction, not only at the level of individual trait values. We examined these demographic trade‐offs using data on vegetative and seed reproduction from 951 species of the Central European flora kept in the Botanical Garden of Charles University in Prague. With each species grown under conditions close to its natural habitat, we view the data as information on vegetative and seed reproduction under favourable conditions. We used nonparametric tests and ordinal regressions to examine relationships of the vegetative and seed reproduction to each other, as well as to commonly used traits such as plant height, leaf size, specific leaf area, seed size and clonal traits. There was an overall negative correlation between seed and vegetative reproduction, indicating trade‐off between these two modes of reproduction. In contrast, there was no evidence of a trade‐off between clonal and seed traits. Traits of clonal growth were related to vegetative reproduction in the garden and seed trait to seed reproduction in the garden. Further, there were correlations between seed reproduction and clonal traits and vice versa. These results suggest that seed reproduction is associated with a wider array of traits than only seed traits, and vegetative reproduction with a wider array than clonal traits again indicating complex life‐history relationships. These relationships did not change substantially after the incorporation of phylogenetic information. Synthesis. The results suggest that trade‐offs between vegetative and seed reproduction are not revealed by analysis of species traits, probably due to the fact that trade‐offs often only arise due to life‐history costs that are shaped by the local environment. This highlights the importance of examining life‐history processes associated with trait values.

Clonal Reproductive Property and Community Characteristic of Invasive Species Coreopsis lanceolata

The clonal reproductive property and community characteristic of invasive species Coreopsis lanceolata in different habitats in Lu Shan,Jiangxi province were studied.The results showed that there was no significant difference in clonal architecture under habitats with different resources.Whether in rock or deserted farmland,the clonal architecture was mainly phalanx which developed from the base of plant,it seemed that there was no correlation between the guerrilla clonal architecture and the level of environment resources.Those guerrilla clonal growth traits made C.lanceolata had collectivize growth strategy,which improved its resistance to barren and drought environment.Thus,naturalized C.lanceolata could dominate various indigenous plants in Lushan,the companion species of C.lanceolata populations were weeds with wider adaptability.

Distribution of clonal growth traits among wetland habitats

Clonality resulting from the growth of specialized organs is common among plants in wetland habitats. We hypothesize that different wetland habitats select for different attributes of clonal traits. This hypothesis is based on studies of individual species but has not been previously tested at the level of habitat. We compared the functional diversity of clonal growth traits of plants in bogs, fens, wet heathlands, floodplains, river beds, open fresh water habitats, salt marshes, and open marine habitats. Clonal traits (including number of offspring, lateral spread, persistence of connections between ramets, and shoot life span) were analysed with multivariate techniques using species frequency data and with permutation tests using presence/absence data. Based on species frequencies, clonal plants in aquatic habitats (open fresh water habitats, open marine habitats, and river beds) were characterized by the abundant production of freely dispersible propagules, annual shoots, and splitting clones. Species of daily flooded salt marshes were characterized by bi-annual connections between ramets and medium dispersability. In contrast, plants in permanently wet bogs were characterized by polycyclic shoots and low offspring production. The specificity of river beds and open freshwater habitats was also confirmed by permutation tests, which gave equal weight to rare and abundant species. However, species in all other wetland habitats were characterized by the entire range of clonal traits, suggesting weak environmental filtering of analyzed traits by habitat at the present scale.

Length of the Spacer Rather than its Plasticity Relates to Species Distribution in Various Natural Habitats

Much evidence from laboratory experiments and theoretical studies show that plasticity of clonal growth traits like lateral spread provides advantage in heterogeneous conditions. However, few tests of whether species with plastic clonal growth have an advantage over non-plastic species in natural conditions exist. I analyzed whether spacer length (i.e., length of a stolon or a rhizome branch between two ramets) and the variation of it (as a surrogate to its plasticity) relate to species presence and abundance in open meadow, wooded meadow and forest habitats with varying environmental conditions at Laelatu wooded meadow, Estonia. In fertilized, compared to unfertilized conditions, a weak and non-conclusive advantage of both long spacers and high variability of spacer length was detected. Abandonment in open meadows lead to a prevalence of species with shorter spacers, while on abandoned wooded meadows the species with longer spacers dominated. There was no difference in variability of spacer length between managed and abandoned meadows. In more heterogeneous forest habitats high variability of spacer length was more common, but the effect of lengthy spacers was more pronounced. The results suggest that while the variability of spacer length indeed corresponds with larger abundance in some conditions, the actual length of spacers has a more pronounced relationship with abundance of plants in natural vegetation.

Different growth response of five co-existing stoloniferous plant species to inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Five species of stoloniferous plants originating from the same field site (Galeobdolon montanum, Glechoma hederacea, Potentilla anserina, Ranunculus repens and Trifolium repens) were studied with respect to their interaction with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. More specifically, the question was addressed whether mycorrhizal growth response of host plant species could be related to their vegetative mobility. The roots of all the species examined were colonised with AM fungi in the field, with the percentage of colonisation varying among species from approximately 40% to 90%. In a subsequent pot experiment, plants of all the species were either left non-inoculated or were inoculated with a mixture of three native AM fungi isolated from the site of plant origin (Glomus mosseae, G. intraradices and G. microaggregatum). AM fungi increased phosphorus uptake in all the plant species; however, plant growth response to inoculation varied widely from negative to positive. In addition to the biomass response, AM inoculation led to a change in clonal growth traits such as stolon number and length or ramet number in some species. Possible causes of the observed differences in mycorrhizal growth response of various stoloniferous plants are discussed.

Effects of inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on clonal growth of Potentilla reptans and Fragaria moschata (Rosaceae)

Many clonal plants live in symbiosis with ubiquitous arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, however, little is known about their interaction with respect to clonal reproduction and resource acquisition. The effects of arbuscular mycorrhiza on the growth and intraclonal integration between ramets of two stoloniferous species were studied experimentally in a nutritionally homogenous soil environment. Two species coexisting at the same field site, Potentilla reptans and Fragaria moschata, were selected as model plants for the study. Pairs of their ramets were grown in neighbouring pots with each ramet rooted separately. Four inoculation treatments were established: (1) both mother and daughter ramets remained non-inoculated, (2) both ramets were inoculated with a mixture of three native AM fungi from the site of plant origin, (3) only mother or (4) daughter ramet was inoculated. The stolons connecting the ramets were either left intact or were disrupted. Despite the consistent increase in phosphorus concentrations in inoculated plants, a negative growth response of both plant species to inoculation with AM fungi was observed and inoculated ramets produced fewer stolons and fewer offspring ramets and had lower total shoot dry weights as compared to non-inoculated ones. A difference in the extent of the negative mycorrhizal growth response was recorded between mother and daughter ramets of P. reptans, with daughter ramets being more susceptible. Due to AM effect on ramet performance, and thereby on the source-sink relationship, inoculation also significantly influenced biomass allocation within clonal fragments. Physiological integration between mother and daughter ramets was observed when their root systems were heterogeneous in terms of AM colonization. These results hence indicate the potential of mycorrhizal fungi to impact clonal growth traits of stoloniferous plant species, with possible consequences for their population dynamics.

What youngsters say about adults: seedling roots reflect clonal traits of adult plants

1 Grime's theory on plant strategies predicts that the set of traits present in established plants is not correlated with that found in the regenerative stage of the life cycle. We tested this prediction and further investigated whether clonal growth traits, which are found in adult plants but also affect regeneration, are correlated with seedling traits. 2 We characterized seedling root systems by their total length, number of root tips and several architectural parameters (length of exterior and interior root links and two topological indices). These below-ground traits were supplemented by the ratio of leaf area to root length, representing relative investment into photosynthesizing surface. We compared seedling traits with clonal growth traits, adult plant heights, and species positions on gradients of nitrogen and water availability. 3 Plant species with limited horizontal spread by clonal growth exhibited a larger relative investment in photosynthetic area and also developed larger root systems as seedlings. 4 Seedlings of species with taller shoots and those which occur naturally at nutrient-rich sites developed both larger roots and more dichotomously branched root systems (with higher total length and more branches). 5 Taking phylogenetic inertia into account showed that this explained large parts of the variation in seedling traits. Relationships between clonal spread and seedling traits were strengthened by phylogenetic correction. 6 Our study shows that some of the traits of clonal growth affect both the established and the regenerative stages of the life cycle, suggesting that an evolutionary trade-off exists between the ability to spread clonally and performance at the seedling stage. Species not able to escape from less favourable conditions by extensive clonal spread seem to be more able to exploit the location in which they germinate.

Clonal growth and tiller demography of the invader cordgrass Spartina densiflora brongn. At two contrasting habitats in SW European salt marshes

Salt marshes offer a valuable opportunity to study the effects of environment on the clonal growth of species able to live throughout a wide vertical range on the tidal frame. Spartina densiflora is a species native to South America that is invading marshes in SW Europe, NW Africa, and SW North America, where its populations are found from low to high topographic elevations, altering the composition of plant communities. The aim of this study was to increase our knowledge regarding the competitive ability of S. densiflora, analyzing its clonal growth and its ramet demography during 25 months in two expanding populations at a low and a high marsh. Four clonal characteristics were recorded in both populations: (1) dense occupation of available space inside tussocks; (2) lack of a dormant period and high tiller production rates and growth; (3) evidence of physiological integration between ramets; and (4) high rates of sexual reproduction. Furthermore, S. densiflora developed different strategies of clonal growth in contrasting habitats. Tussocks in the low marsh had lower tiller longevity and higher tiller density, natality, and mortality rates, showing faster ramet turnover than in the high marsh. These clonal growth traits would facilitate S. densiflora persistence under the effects of catastrophic events. Spartina densiflora clonal growth traits indicate strong adaptability to different environmental conditions and strong competitive ability, since its tiller dynamics enable it to invade occupied space, and it effectively colonizes new safe-sites by sexual reproduction. These observations help us to understand how this invader has become the most abundant plant in many estuaries of the SW Iberian Peninsula.

Interclonal differences, plasticity and trade‐offs of life history traits of Cyperus esculentus in relation to water availability

Abstract Cyperus esculentus is an exotic clonal (or pseudoannual) weed in Japan, and its range is steadily increasing. To investigate its interclonal variation and phenotypic plasticity in response to water availability, five clones of C. esculentus, collected from different sites in Japan, were grown singly in pots placed outdoors under dry and wet conditions. All the traits examined showed considerable variation among the five clones. However, two clones from Tochigi were similar to each other; thus, they might have originated from the same founder population. The clone from Ibaraki was quite different from the others. Therefore, it is suggested that the Japanese populations of C. esculentus might have resulted from multiple introductions of genotypes from geographically separated and, hence, genetically differentiated, source populations. All the clones also showed considerable plasticity in response to water availability. Clones with a larger ramet number had a greater plasticity, whereas tuber size was invariant across water treatments. Highly plastic traits had generally low interclonal variation in plasticity. All the clones had high productivity and produced more ramets and tubers under wet conditions than under dry conditions. Moreover, water availability could partially regulate the mode of its reproduction; wet conditions favored tuber production (vegetative propagation) while dry conditions favored sexual reproduction. A number of trade‐offs occurred between the traits of clonal growth, storage and sexual reproduction, indicating that allocation among the competing functions/organs is mutually exclusive in plants. The results obtained here suggest that C. esculentus is more likely to invade wet habitats than dry habitats.

Clonal Growth Traits of Two Prunella Species are Determined by Co-Occurring Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi from a Calcareous Grassland

1 The effects of three different isolates of co-occurring arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) from the same calcareous grassland on clonal growth traits of Prunella vulgaris and P. grandiflora were investigated. 2 P. vulgaris and P. grandiflora were found to be highly dependent on AMF for growth in soil from the same calcareous grassland. The addition of phosphorus did not significantly increase the growth of either nonmycorrhizal or mycorrhizal P. vulgaris. 3 The three AMF isolates differed significantly in their effects on size of the two plant species. The AMF isolates also differed in their effects on stolon branching and stolon length and here the effects were not the same in the two plant species. The differential effects of AMF isolates on clonal growth traits were consistently independent of the level of AMF colonization throughout the experiment, indicating that the effects were not due to different rates of colonization. Some of the AMF isolate effects on stolon branching in P. vulgaris were also independent of the effects of AMF isolates on plant size. These results suggest that different AMF in a natural community have the potential to influence the growth, number of ramets and distribution of ramets in Prunella populations. 4 The strong differential effects of AMF isolates on clonal growth traits of P. vulgaris occurred in a homogeneous environment. Plasticity in such traits has previously been considered important for efficient resource foraging in a heterogeneous environment. Our results, however, indicate that different AMF in a community could strongly influence resource foraging strategies in clonal plants irrespective of environmental heterogeneity. The results also suggest that increasing the availability of phosphorus would be unlikely to alter these effects. 5 Our results point strongly to the potential importance of AMF diversity as a determinant of plant population structure in ecosystems.

Variation in Architectural and Clonal Growth Traits within the Seed Population of White Clover (Trifolium repens L.) in a Trifolium repens-Zoysia japonica Sward

Variation in Architectural and Clonal Growth Traits within the Seed Population of White Clover (Trifolium repens L.) in a Trifolium repens-Zoysia japonica Sward

Clonal behaviour in closely related plants

The comparison of published data on clonal morphology of closely related species and/or data on comparative morphology of larger groups of related species showed that most of the variation observed is more related to history than to putative selection pressures within present plant communities. Historical factors include both phylogeny and climatic conditions experienced in the past. Inheritance of clonal growth traits is variable even within one genus and is hard to predict namely in polyploid groups. Community parameters and architectural traits may be closely related in the case of hybrid speciation when the divergence of newly formed taxa may be very rapid and easily influenced by short term community parameters; however there are very few well documented examples.