Trait List Research Articles

Wonderboom, South Africa: An Acheulean workshop with evidence of flake harvesting

There are several characteristics that can be used to identify Acheulean workshops. However, the direct flaking of raw-material outcrops can be an important step in Acheulean lithic production that is missing from the current trait list. Here, we define and introduce the first systematically documented evidence of what we refer to as ‘flake harvesting’ at Wonderboom in Gauteng, South Africa. The presence of flakes and cores from the excavated Acheulean deposit, with similar dimensions and in similar condition to those associated with the nearby flake-harvesting localities, indicate that the behaviour was associated with the Acheulean. We explain that collecting flakes in this manner is different from quarrying, and provide a recording protocol that can be applied to other localities. This could help to explore whether the behaviour has been missed previously, or whether it is a uniquely localised development. We provide a summary of Acheulean workshop traits reported by other researchers, demonstrating that several of these traits are present at Wonderboom, so that the site can now be thought of in terms of a workshop, amongst other things, and flake harvesting can be added to the list.

Extracting Landmark and Trait Information from Segmented Digital Specimen Images Generated by Artificial Neural Networks

We have been successfully developing Artificial Intelligence (AI) models for automatically classifying fish species using neural networks over the last three years during the “Biology Guided Neural Network” (BGNN) project*1. We continue our efforts in another broader project, “Imageomics: A New Frontier of Biological Information Powered by Knowledge-Guided Machine Learning”*2. One of the main topics in the Imageomics Project is “Morphological Barcoding”. Within the Morphological Barcoding study, we are trying to build a gold standard method to identify species in different taxonomic groups based on their external morphology. This list of characters will contain, but not be limited to, landmarks, quantitative traits such as measurements of distances, areas, angles, proportions, colors, histograms, patterns, shapes, and outlines. The taxonomic groups will be limited by the data available, and we will be using fish as the topic of interest in this preliminary study. In this current study, we have focused on extracting morphological characters that are relying on anatomical features of fish, such as location of the eye, body length, and area of the head. We developed a schematic workflow to describe how we processed the data and extract the information (Fig. 1). We performed our analysis on the segmented images produced by Karpatne Team within the BGNN project (Bart et al. 2021). Segmentation analysis was performed using Artificial Neural Networks - Semantic Segmentation (Long et al. 2015); the list of segments to be detected were given as eye, head, trunk, caudal fin, pectoral fin, dorsal fin, anal fin, pelvic fin for fish. Segmented images, metadata and species lists were given as input to the workflow. During the cleaning and filtering subroutines, a subset of data was created by filtering down to the desired segmented images with corresponding metadata. In the validation step, segmented images were checked by comparing the number of specimens in the original image to the separate bounding-boxed specimen images, noting: violations in the segmentations, counts of segments, comparisons of relative positions of the segments among one another, traces of batch effect; comparisons according to their size and shape and finally based on these validation criteria each segmented image was assigned a score from 1 to 5 similar to Adobe XMP Basic namespace. The landmarks and the traits to be used in the study were extracted from the current literature, while mindful that some of the features may not be extracted successfully computationally. By using the landmark list, landmarks have been extracted by adapting the descriptions from the literature on to the segments, such as picking the left most point on the head as the tip of snout and top left point on the pelvic fin as base of the pelvic fin. These 2D vectors (coordinates), are then fine tuned by adjusting their positions to be on the outline of the fish, since most of the landmarks are located on the outline. Procrustes analysis*3 was performed to scale all of the measurements together and point clouds were generated. These vectors were stored as landmark data. Segment centroids were also treated as landmarks. Extracted landmarks were validated by comparing their relative position among each other, and then if available, compared with their manually captured position. A score was assigned based on these comparisons, similar to the segmentation validation score. Based on the trait list definitions, traits were extracted by measuring the distances between two landmarks, angles between three landmarks, areas between three or more landmarks, areas of the segments, ratios between two distances or areas and between a distance and a square rooted area and then stored as trait data. Finally these values were compared within their own species clusters for errors and whether the values were still within the bounds. Trait scores were calculated from these error calculations similar to segmentation scores aiming selecting good quality scores for further analysis such as Principal Component Analysis. Our work on extraction of features from segmented digital specimen images has shown that the accuracy of the traits such as measurements, areas, and angles depends on the accuracy of the landmarks. Accuracy of the landmarks is highly dependent on segmentation of the parts of the specimen. The landmarks that are located on the outline of the body (combination of head and trunk segments of the fish) are found to be more accurate comparing to the landmarks that represents inner features such as mouth and pectoral fin in some taxonomic groups. However, eye location is almost always accurate, since it is based on the centroid of the eye segment. In the remaining part of this study we will improve the score calculation for segments, images, landmarks and traits and calculate the accuracy of the scores by comparing the statistical results obtained by analysis of the landmark and trait data.

Psycho-lexically based Openness to Experience

We investigated whether NEO-PI-R Openness to Experience (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and its six facets could be identified in the natural trait lexicon. To represent the NEO-PI-R Openness, a list of 113 items was selected from a lexically derived trait list developed for the eight-factor trait model of De Raad and Barelds (2008). We used ratings from two samples. The first (N=271) filled out the lexical Openness scales, the NEO-PI-R Openness scales, and scales measuring the eight-factor model. From the second sample (N=1,466), ratings were used to analyze the lexical Openness scales. Correlations between the eight-factor scales and the two sets of Openness scales indicated that Openness scales are fairly covered by the eight factors, except for the Ideas and Values facets of the NEO-PI-R. The lexical Openness scales correlated well with the NEO-PI-R Openness scales. Openness to Experience and its six facets were identified in the natural trait lexicon, but exploratory factor analyses did not support the six-facet structure of the NEO-PI-R Openness, neither did they lead to a similar six-facet structure across samples. Moreover, it did not consistently support a proposed two-facet structure emphasizing internal openness (fantasy, aesthetics) and external openness (ideas, change).

Ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology: A review

AbstractForensic anthropologists assist law enforcement agencies and medical examiner's offices with investigations involving human remains, providing insight into trauma analysis, the establishment of postmortem interval, and the estimation of biological profile data. Ancestry is considered one of the more difficult aspects of the biological profile, due in large part to the complicated relationship between skeletal morphology and social constructs. The methods used to estimate ancestry rely on the correlation between skeletal morphology, geographic origin, and an individual's social race. While there is a well‐documented contemptible history associated with the development of ancestry estimation methods in biological anthropology, many of the more traditional, now antiquated, methods are still used in some laboratories. The push to improve the framework within which ancestry data are analyzed requires validation and reassessment for each method in addition to the development of novel approaches utilizing modern technological advances. An array of software programs designed to aid in ancestry estimation is available. These advances do not signal the end of ancestry‐related research. Indeed, several areas seemingly stagnated by tradition and time require further study through more than simply review and rarefaction. The future of ancestry estimation research centers on: (a) abandoning the trait list approach, (b) rejecting the three‐group model, (c) establishing larger and more representative reference data, (d) assessing the utility of mixed method models, and (e) developing new statistical approaches and updating current software tools.This article is categorized under:Forensic Anthropology > Ancestry DeterminationForensic Medicine > Historical PerspectivesForensic Anthropology > Anthropology in Mass Disaster & War Crime Contexts

Standardization of Postcranial Nonmetric Traits and Their Utility in Ancestry Analysis

Throughout the forensic anthropology and archaeology disciplines, postcranial nonmetric traits have varied in name, descriptions, and scoring methodology. This research focuses on synthesizing the literature to select the most prevalent traits, standardize their definitions, and create corresponding line drawings for each trait. By defining and illustrating each trait and its different states, a novel visual approach for scoring a suite of 11 postcranial nonmetric traits was created. Data collection allowed for the calculation of frequency distributions for ancestry comparison. Results indicate that four traits have statistically significant differences between two groups, American Blacks and American Whites, when using the Bonferroni adjusted p-value of 0.0045. These traits include spinous process bifurcation of the C3 and C4 vertebrae, the septal aperture, the third trochanter, and the anterior and middle calcaneal facets. While the frequencies and the chi-square results of these traits are not enough to be used in isolation, this analysis of a nonmetric postcranial trait list identifies the necessity for further research into these traits and their associations with ancestry estimation.

An experimental study of turtle shell rattle production and the implications for archaeofaunal assemblages.

Turtle shell rattles are percussion instruments used by Indigenous peoples of the Americas in ceremonial contexts to keep rhythm. Archaeological investigations in the southeastern United States produced several complete and partial Eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina) shell rattles from mortuary contexts dating from the Archaic (ca. 8000–1000 BC) through Mississippian periods (ca. AD 800–1500). Fragmentary turtle remains, some identified as Eastern box turtle, are frequently recovered from non-mortuary contexts. Traditionally, these fragmentary remains are attributed to food waste. Given the archaeological and ethnographic evidence for turtle shell rattles, we need to consider how fragmentary remains might fit into the chaîne opératoire of rattle production. This paper presents the results of an experimental study designed to identify one such chaîne opératoire of rattle production. During this experiment, the data on taphonomic processes such as manufacturing marks, use-wear, and breakage patterns, were recorded. We then tested the taphonomic findings from the experimental study and an object trait list we compiled from known rattle specimens and documentary sources with archaeological turtle remains recovered from non-mortuary contexts at two Mississippian period (ca. AD 1000–1450) sites in Middle Tennessee. Historic indigenous groups are known to have, and still do into the present-day, make and use turtle shell rattles in the region. Ultimately, we determined that “food refuse” should not be the default interpretation of fragmentary box turtle remains, and instead the taphonomic history and contextual associations must be considered in full. The experimental process of crafting turtle shell rattles enhances our understanding of an ancient musical instrument and the success rate of identifying musical artifacts and distinguishing between other modified turtle remains in the archaeological record. This study expands our knowledge of ancient music in North America and prompts re-analysis of curated turtle remains in museums for rattle-related modifications.

On the development of a predictive functional trait approach for studying terrestrial arthropods.

The characterization of ecological communities with functional traits allows to consider simultaneously the ability of a species to survive and reproduce in an environment, its interactions with other species and its effects on the ecosystem. Functional traits have been studied mainly by plant ecologists, but are increasingly common in the study of other taxa including arthropods. Arthropods represent a group for which a functional trait approach could be highly profitable because of their high diversity, abundance, ubiquity and role in many important ecological processes. This review synthesizes two decades of functional trait research on terrestrial arthropods. We show that while the approach has gained popularity, particularly in the last decade, the absence of clearly postulated hypotheses is a recurrent problem limiting generalization. Furthermore, studied traits are often poorly related to studied functions. To address these problems, we propose a step-by-step protocol to postulate clear hypotheses prior to trait selection and emphasize the need for a common set of more generalizable traits in future studies. Extending the functional trait approach to arthropods opens the door to improving our understanding of interspecific interactions and potential links between response and effect traits. We present the concept of trait-matching with several examples of arthropod traits known to be effective predictors of consumer-resource interactions. The development of a successful functional trait approach for terrestrial arthropods will necessitate an understanding of relevant traits, standardized measurement protocols and open access databases to share this information. Such progress will provide ecologists with a new set of tools to answer broad questions in several fields including the study of community assembly, ecological networks and multitrophic functionality.

Identifying Turtle Shell Rattles in the Archaeological Record of the Southeastern United States

The construction of rattles from turtle (Testudines) shells is an important consideration when distinguishing between food and non-food uses of archaeological turtle remains. However, the identification of turtle shell rattles in prehistoric contexts can be quite challenging. Equifinality is a major problem for being able to distinguish rattles from food refuse, particularly when a carapace is not burnt or modified. In addition, diversity, abundance, and distribution of Chelonian taxa varies throughout the southeastern United States, creating differential access for indigenous groups. Thus, multiple lines of evidence are needed from archaeological, ethnographic, and ethnohistoric records to successfully argue for the production and use of turtle shell rattles in the prehistoric southeastern United States. In this article, we present examples of turtle shell rattles in the southeastern United States to highlight their function and use by indigenous groups, the construction process, and several common characteristics, or an object trait list, that can aid in the identification of fragmentary turtle shell rattle remains. Proper identification of turtle remains is important for interpreting faunal remains and may be of interest to indigenous groups claiming cultural items under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).

Moving beyond the guild concept: developing a practical functional trait framework for terrestrial beetles

1. New logical and analytical frameworks for studying functional traits have led to major advances in plant and freshwater ecology at local and global scales. The ecological and taxonomic diversity of terrestrial adult beetles (Coleoptera) means that functional trait approaches should have considerable power to illuminate the function not only of these animals but also of the ecosystems in which they occur.2. Even though the functional trait concept is not new in ecology, it is still plagued with inconsistencies in methodology and terminology. Plant‐based studies have shown that an integrated and relatively consistent functional trait approach facilitates comparisons between studies, and allows the full utility and predictive capacity of trait‐based approaches to be realised.3. This review outlines a logical framework for adult beetle functional trait studies using uniform terminology and methodology similar to those used by plant ecologists. Beetle life‐history and ecomorphological trait studies are synthesised and it is shown that a combination of both is analogous to the functional trait approach. A general functional trait list for beetles and potential functional links is outlined, as are potential analysis approaches. A consistent functional trait approach, coupled with advances in molecular techniques, has the capability to provide deeper insights into beetle community assembly and how beetles impact ecosystems and will enable worldwide comparisons and predictions to be made.

Statistical Classification Methods for Estimating Ancestry Using Morphoscopic Traits,

Ancestry assessments using cranial morphoscopic traits currently rely on subjective trait lists and observer experience rather than empirical support. The trait list approach, which is untested, unverified, and in many respects unrefined, is relied upon because of tradition and subjective experience. Our objective was to examine the utility of frequently cited morphoscopic traits and to explore eleven appropriate and novel methods for classifying an unknown cranium into one of several reference groups. Based on these results, artificial neural networks (aNNs), OSSA, support vector machines, and random forest models showed mean classification accuracies of at least 85%. The aNNs had the highest overall classification rate (87.8%), and random forests show the smallest difference between the highest (90.4%) and lowest (76.5%) classification accuracies. The results of this research demonstrate that morphoscopic traits can be successfully used to assess ancestry without relying only on the experience of the observer.

Behavioural Complexity and Modern Traits in the Philippine Upper Palaeolithic

Behavioral modernity has been a widely neglected topic for Southeast Asia’s prehistory. Evidence of modern packages or even traits is basically absent in the Palaeolithic assemblages. This absence has considerably influenced the discussion of hominid behavior and their cultural and cognitive abilities. In a case study on terminal Pleistocene artifacts from Ille Cave on Palawan Island, indications of the presence of several items of the modern trait list, foremost the first evidence of hafted lithic tools and the use of adhesives in the Philippine Palaeolithic, were detected through microwear analysis. The results showed that unretouched and morphologically less characteristic flaked artifacts often considered as mere expedient tools could have served as hafted armatures of multicomponent tools. For the ongoing discussion on the development and expansion of modern behavior, methods like microwear analysis can eliminate some limitations of traditional technological and morphological analysis of lithic assemblages.

A Simulation for Exploring the Effects of the “Trait List” Method’s Subjectivity on Consistency and Accuracy of Ancestry Estimations*

The nonmetric "trait list" methodology is widely used for estimating ancestry of skeletal remains. However, the effects of the method's embedded subjectivity on subsequent accuracy and consistency are largely unknown. We develop a mathematical simulation to test whether variation in the application of the "trait list" method alters the ancestry estimation for a given case. Our simulation explores how variations in (i) trait selection, (ii) number of traits employed, and (iii) ancestry choice thresholds affect the ancestry estimation of an unidentified skeleton. Using two temporally and geographically diverse samples, the simulation demonstrates that trait selection, trait quantity, threshold choices, and the exclusion of high-frequency traits had minimal effect on estimation of general ancestry. For all data sets and Runs, Accuracy(AS) was maintained above 90%. The authors close with a discussion on the logistical issues present when choosing traits, and how to avoid ancestry bias.

Have We Overlooked Something? Hafting Traces and Indications of Modern Traits in the Philippine Palaeolithic

Behavioural modernity has been a widely neglected topic for Southeast Asia’s Prehistory. Evidence of modern packages or even traits is basically absent in the Palaeolithic assemblages. This absence has considerably influenced the discussion of hominid behaviour and their cultural and cognitive abilities. In a case study on terminal Pleistocene artefacts from Ille Cave on Palawan Island, indications of the presence of several items of the modern trait list, foremost the first evidence of hafted lithic tools and the use of adhesives in the Philippine Palaeolithic, were detected through microwear analysis. The results showed that unretouched and morphologically less characteristic flaked artefacts often considered as mere expedient tools could have served as hafted armatures of multicomponent tools. For the ongoing discussion on the development and expansion of modern behaviour, methods like microwear analysis can enhance the limitations of traditional technological and morphological analysis of lithic assemblages.

Peers’ Perceptions of Intellectually Bright, Hardworking, and Sporty Students: A Developmental Perspective

The purpose of the study was to explore whether Hong Kong Chinese students’ perceptions of academic brilliance, studiousness, and athleticism mirrored traditional Chinese values of intellectual achievements and diligence. Although the main instrumentation was adapted from Tannenbaum (1962), an indigenous trait list was developed for the study. A total 1328 students aged 8 – 16 years participated in the study. Analysis of responses to eight stimulus characters differing in academic brilliance, effort, and athleticism revealed that the model of a perfect peer embraced all three qualities. Athleticism had the strongest impact on perceptions of a character, whereas studiousness the weakest. The attractiveness of athleticism increased with age. The interactive effect of academic brilliance, diligence, and athleticism on perceptions of a peer differed within the comparison groups. Culture proved to be a good predictor of students’ perceptions of a peer.

Book Review: Transcultural Psychiatry: Revenge of the Windigo. The Construction of the Mind and Mental Health of North American Aboriginal People

Transcultural Psychiatry Revenge of the Windigo. The Construction of the Mind and Mental Health of North American Aboriginal People. James B Waldram. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 2004. 414 p. CANS29.95. Reviewer rating: Very good. JB Waldram, a medical anthropologist and professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Saskatchewan, spent considerable time in Algonkian communities in Northern Canada, where he heard stories of the windigo, the cannibal monster. In this book, he presents a remarkable critical review of studies of North American Aboriginal people. He tries to show how 3 disciplinesanthropology, psychology, and psychiatrycreated and distorted our image of Aboriginal people. The author does not offer new data but, rather, points out the problems scholars and researchers have encountered with concepts, methods, and theories-problems that have led to questionable conclusions and generalizations often devoid of historical and social context. The book has 12 chapters divided into 3 parts. The first part reviews efforts in the first half of the 20th century to identify basic Aboriginal personality structure; it discusses classic approaches by anthropologists such as Ruth Benedict and her contemporaries, who were influenced by the pioneering work of Franz Boas. Their projects aimed to preserve the vanishing North American Aboriginal cultures and explore their patterns. Benedict's work is criticized for omissions or selective use of nonconforming data, for example, in regard to violence and alcohol abuse (p 25). Waldram concludes that Benedict's classic examination was fundamentally flawed (p 26). He describes the emergence of psychoanalytical anthropology and the influence of Sigmund Freud's evolutionary ideas that sought parallels between primitive people and neurotic behaviour. Culture-andpersonality studies came under attack by the middle of the 20th century, however, with new interest in the trait list approach to personality and problems of acculturation. One of the most documented efforts to focus on the psychological consequences of acculturation was the Indian Education and Administration Research Project, initiated in 1941 at the University of Chicago. This interdisciplinary project aimed to improve Indian schooling and administration. It involved some 50 eminent scientists and used standardized psychological tests such as the Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test, Goodenough Draw-A-Man, Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and other methods. The tests might have failed to measure Native intelligence, but they helped to refine crosscultural techniques. Some of the monographs produced became ethnographic classics, although cautionary notes warned readers not to overgeneralize. The project was a testing ground for cooperation among anthropologists, psychologists, and psychoanalytic psychiatrists. Anthropologists persevered in their use of tests and generated psychological profiles for many different Aboriginal North American groups. Rorschach was useful for cross-cultural comparison, although some results were too general or vague to be of value. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was also widely used, but acculturation and socioeconomic status-especially education or occupation-affected scores on the abbreviated MMPI 168-item scale. Psychometric approaches to the study of personality and intelligence attempted to capture the essence of the Aboriginal in terms of a few items and scale scores used to differentiate among groups and cultures-but whatever culture is, it is certainly not simply a variable (p 101). The second part of the book examines both early and contemporary studies of Aboriginal psychopathology, with specific attention to concepts of acculturative stress. Some early acculturation studies held the view that Utopian, genuine, internally harmonious Aboriginal cultures existed before the arrival of Europeans. …

Toward a narrative conceptualization of stereotypes: contextualizing perceptions of public housing residents

Expansion of policies aimed at empowering disenfranchised groups, for example, resident/tenant participation in public housing, have been greeted with a great deal of enthusiasm. However, negative beliefs about the intelligence, ability, and morality of these groups, may interfere with the implementation of these policies. A greater understanding of social perceptions may lead to interventions that diminish interference. Traditional stereotyping research methods rely on trait conceptualizations that have been criticized as inadequate to fully describe social perceptions. This study examines the utility of a narrative approach to studying stereotypes about public housing residents. A group of college students (authors) wrote stories about a public housing resident and described the resident using trait objectives. Two readers, one given the story and the other the trait list, predicted how the author responded on various public housing belief and attitude instruments. Results indicate that stories and traits convey unique information not expressed by the other and offer preliminary support for the added usefulness, especially contextual information, of a narrative framework for studying stereotypes. The relevance of a narrative approach for understanding how stereotypes may undermine empowerment-based policies, in this case tenant participation in public housing, will also be explored. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Toward a narrative conceptualization of stereotypes: contextualizing perceptions of public housing residents

Expansion of policies aimed at empowering disenfranchised groups, for example, resident/tenant participation in public housing, have been greeted with a great deal of enthusiasm. However, negative beliefs about the intelligence, ability, and morality of these groups, may interfere with the implementation of these policies. A greater understanding of social perceptions may lead to interventions that diminish interference. Traditional stereotyping research methods rely on trait conceptualizations that have been criticized as inadequate to fully describe social perceptions. This study examines the utility of a narrative approach to studying stereotypes about public housing residents. A group of college students (authors) wrote stories about a public housing resident and described the resident using trait objectives. Two readers, one given the story and the other the trait list, predicted how the author responded on various public housing belief and attitude instruments. Results indicate that stories and traits convey unique information not expressed by the other and offer preliminary support for the added usefulness, especially contextual information, of a narrative framework for studying stereotypes. The relevance of a narrative approach for understanding how stereotypes may undermine empowerment-based policies, in this case tenant participation in public housing, will also be explored. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Trait list bias? A reply to Skelton and McHenry

The aim of this research is to determine whether geometric morphometric (GM) techniques can provide insights into how the shape of the mandibular corpus differs between bonobos and chimpanzees and to explore the potential implications of those results for our understanding of hominin evolution. We focused on this region of the mandible because of the relative frequency with which it has been recovered in the hominin fossil record. In addition, no previous study had explored in-depth three-dimensional (3D) mandibular corpus shape differences between adults of the two Pan species using geometric morphometrics. GM methods enable researchers to quantitatively analyze and visualize 3D shape changes in skeletal elements and provide an important compliment to traditional two-dimensional analyses.Eighteen mandibular landmarks were collected using a Microscribe 3DX portable digitizer. Specimen configurations were superimposed using Generalized Procrustes analysis and the projections of the fitted coordinates to tangent space were analyzed using multivariate statistics. The size-adjusted corpus shapes of Pan paniscus and Pan troglodytes could be assigned to species with approximately 93% accuracy and the Procrustes distance between the two species was significant. Analyses of the residuals from a multivariate linear regression of the data on centroid size suggested that much of the shape difference between the species is size-related. Chimpanzee subspecies and a small sample of Australopithecus specimens could be correctly identified to taxon, at best, only 75% of the time, although the Procrustes distances between these taxa were significant. The shape of the mandibular symphysis was identified as especially useful in differentiating Pan species from one another. This suggests that this region of the mandible has the potential to be informative for taxonomic analyses of fossil hominoids, including hominins. The results also have implications for phylogenetic hypotheses of hominoid evolution.

Sex Attribution to Hypothetical Persons Described by an Adjective Trait List: A Replication

This paper is a replication of the author's 1969 study, “Sex Attribution to Hypothetical Persons Described by Adjective Trait Lists.” In both studies the trait lists were made up of four masculine traits, four feminine traits, four neutral traits, and four traits which were half masculine and half feminine. In the 1969 study most of the figures described, 81%, were male. In the intervening years, the feminist movement, emphasis on changing sexist elements in language, and similar social phenomena influenced the author to hypothesize that female figures would be more highly represented in a replication. In the repetition of the study 25 years later, 53% of the responses were of female figures, 26% were male figures, and 21% were either male or female.

Accuracy of sex determination using morphological traits of the human pelvis

This study assesses the accuracy and reliability of 17 individual morphological traits of the pelvis frequently used to determine the sex of human skeletal remains. A sample of 49 right and left adult hip bones and sacra of documented individuals were available from an historic church cemetery dating from the 19th century. A hypothetical ranking of the accuracy of traits was drawn from the literature. Next, individual traits were evaluated for precision and accuracy of observations, and combinations of two and three traits were evaluated for their collective effectiveness as sex indicators. The effect of age on the accuracy of traits for sex determination was also examined. Precision of traits was generally good. Several combinations of three criteria produced higher levels of accuracy than the trait list as a whole. A total of six traits was judged to be most effective as sex discriminators because of low intraobserver error levels and better than 83% accuracy rats. There was no indication of an age effect on the precision or accuracy of these traits although sample sizes are small.