Traditional Water Supply Research Articles

Variable frequency constant pressure water supply system based on Siemens S-1200

Abstract This paper presents the design of an efficient, cost-effective, and intelligent variable frequency water supply control system. The system consists of a PLC, frequency converters, water pumps, pressure sensors, and other components to form a closed-loop control system. It enables closed-loop control of water pressure, ensuring a dynamic balance between water consumption and water supply. A user-friendly HMI is designed based on a software platform for easy operation by management personnel. It allows for seamless switching of the system’s operating modes and the running status of water pumps. Real-time display of pump operation and monitoring of system performance are also provided. Compared to traditional water supply methods, this system exhibits superior reliability, speed, and performance. It is capable of meeting the daily water consumption needs of residents in high-rise buildings.

Reviving the forgotten legacy: Strategies for reviving qanats as sustainable solutions for agricultural water supply in arid and semi-arid regions

In semi-arid and arid regions, qanats are a vital water source for agricultural needs. However, many communities are abandoning these traditional and sustainable water supply systems in favor of modern and more productive methods. Consequently, this research aimed to identify the most effective approaches for rejuvenating qanats in the dry and semi-arid areas of Razavi Khorasan province, Iran. To accomplish this goal, a comprehensive strategy was employed by merging the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT, Best-Worst Method (BWM), and the Weighted Aggregated Sum Product Assessment (WASPAS).Based on interviews with experts in water resources and SWOT analysis, 27 factors affecting the restoration of qanats were identified and weighted with BWM. The results of BWM-WASPAS highlight the crucial role of a holistic approach in reviving qanats. The study findings reveal that the highest scores were obtained by the strategies reforming water governance policies to prioritize sustainable indigenous water resources (SO1) and establish an independent institution for qanat restoration (WT7). Conversely, educational (ST1), informational (SO3), and research (WO4) strategies concerning the revival of qanats were categorized as intermediate priorities. Lastly, strategies associated with farm-level support policies were assigned lower priorities. Accordingly, it is recommended that policymakers in Mashhad give priority to macro-level and institutional policies concerning qanat restoration, considering the current state of indigenous water resources. Additionally, a continued emphasis on research policies and farm-level initiatives is advised.

Quantitative reevaluation of the function of Karez using remote sensing technology

The water delivery capacity of Karez is gradually declining, and it is possible that such a traditional water supply systems might be completely replaced by modern water conservancy projects. To determine whether these ancient water conservancy projects have a future, we conducted a study in a typical research area of Xinjiang Province, China. Using remote sensing technology, in situ surveying, and the analytic hierarchy process, we evaluated Karez in terms of water delivery capacity, water intake convenience, and capability to maintaining the ecological stability of the surrounding area. The derived results are as follows. (1) During 2005–2020, the length of 14 Karez systems in the study area decreased; however, the calculated water access convenience degree (C) indicated that Karez are more convenient for water intake compared with modern transmission channels, i.e., Ckarez = 0.68 and Cchannel = 0.51. (2) The mean annual runoff of the Karez system was 69.38 × 106 m3, similar to that of the modern water transmission channels in the area (73.49 × 106 m3). (3) Change in ecological sensitivity occurred mostly in regions where Karez systems have disappeared, with increase of 70.69 % and 14.51 % in high and medium sensitivity areas, respectively, and decline of 21.53 % and 9.74 % in low-sensitivity and non-sensitivity areas. Our research shows that Karez have considerable water delivery capacity, and that their existence is beneficial to maintaining the stability of the surrounding ecology. The Karez system can be considered a template for harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.

Life cycle assessment to evaluate the integral water cycle in industrial supply: A real case study

Wastewater recycling technologies are developed in areas where the necessity of water resources cannot be satisfied by natural sources. Nevertheless, nowadays trends and European Union Plans show an increasing interest on using these technologies to reduce environmental impacts. This manuscript aims to address the question of the real environmental results of using these technologies and the differences between each specific case using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. A real case study is analyzed to answer this question: the integral water cycle of a northern of Spain, comparing a traditional water supply system (system I), and an alternative wastewater regeneration plant (system II). System II presents a higher impact for all categories (between 1.2 and 37 times higher), except for land use, where it is reduced by 53 %. These results show a larger impact produced by the alternative system due to higher energy and chemical product consumption. Energy consumption is the main factor causing the highest impact in most of the impact categories for both studied systems, including the one associated to the water resource consumption. It accounts for at least 50 % of the total impact for each system in 7 of the 16 evaluated impact categories. In terms of climate change, energy consumption is not particularly significant in system I, but it is for system II, where it represents around 50 % of that impact. In the categories where the impact is not determined by energy consumption, chemical product consumption and waste and discharge treatment are the most relevant factors. In this sense, this paper highlights the importance of analysing each case specifically and underscores the usefulness of using LCA methodology as a tool to improve decision-making in resource management, with water resources emerging as a crucial focal point.

Understanding inland fog and dew dynamics for assessing potential non-rainfall water use in the Atacama

In (semi-)arid regions, harvesting fog and dew can become a complementary solution to traditional water supply. In the Atacama region, a territory of key and water-dependent economic activities, both fog and dew are driven by the advection of marine moisture from the Pacific. Still, little is described regarding the dynamics and water potential of these events. In this study, we analyze the spatiotemporal variability of fog and dew in the Atacama Desert to assess the potential of non-rainfall atmospheric water harvesting. Our research strategy combines three methods to achieve a comprehensive understanding of these phenomena: a satellite-spatial analysis of fog and low cloud frequencies; a thermodynamic characterization of the fog cloud vertical structure; and an observational analysis of fog and dew water collection. Our findings reveal that fog is a regular phenomenon in the area, occurring from 3% to 20% of the year. We estimate that fog cloud reaches 50 km inland and up to ∼1100 m ASL, covering a vast territory where it can be harvested. Fog and dew represent 72% and 28% of the total collected atmospheric water (∼0.2 L m−2 day−1). Both fog and dew represent a complementary natural water source with multiple uses for local industries.

Nano-porous transport membrane condenser for flue gas water recovery: Modeling and parametric membrane design analysis

Water resources are becoming scarce and climate change is exacerbating the stress on traditional water supplies. Thus, it is important to identify viable solutions to resolve tensions in the water energy nexus. One example is the use of transport membrane condensers (TMCs) to recover water as well as waste heat from flue gases with the aim to improve economics and to reduce the environmental impact of the industrial sector. In this work, the authors present a detailed 1D+1D TMC model and investigate the impact of three key membrane design parameters upon the water recovery rate. Sensitivity analyses of pore radius, membrane porosity and contact angle reveal that pore radii of smaller than 10 nm can substantially improve condensation rates due to the exponential vapor pressure dependency described by the Kelvin equation. Reducing the pore radius from 15 nm to 1 nm increases water recovery by over 74% in some of the study scenarios. Additionally, a higher membrane porosity is shown to increase water condensation rates. A higher porosity increases the number of pores on the surface, and thus, the driving force for mass transport. The results show an increase in water recovery of up to 7.7% per 10% porosity increase. The contact angle, which is related to the hydrophilicity of the membrane material, influences the formation of the meniscus inside the pore. Changes in the contact angle from a flat surface (90°) to 30° are shown to have a strong impact upon the water condensation rate. Furthermore, condensation flux improvements through the above-mentioned membrane design modifications are more pronounced in environments with low mass transport driving force due to the nature of the suction effect, which is governed by diffusion and convection transport laws.

Life cycle cost assessment and economic analysis of a decentralized wastewater treatment to achieve water sustainability within the framework of circular economy

Research background: The increasing water demand together with an unceasing production of wastewater worldwide has resulted in a situation where the scarcity and pollution of water resources are jeopardizing and depleting such a vital asset. Purpose of the article: In this context, Nature Based Solutions (NBS) such as Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands (VFCWs) are key because of their capacity of channelling a waste into a resource. However, and notwithstanding their essential role, their financial benefits too often go unnoticed because of missing research that study them from an economic perspective and this article has covered this existing gap. The objective of this research is to analyse the economic consequences of using VFCW against its traditional alternative through a comprehensive economic assessment. Methods: After doing a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a combination of two approaches has been carried out. This research has developed a holistic approach where a Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA) based on a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) along with an economic evaluation of cleaning environmental costs have been calculated for two different scenarios. For this monetary analysis, the environmental externalities derived from the use of cleaning the pollution caused by a public water supply and sewerage system and the VFCW have been quantified. Findings & value added: Results conclude that VFCW apart of being a cost-effective and profitable alternative for an investor, it has also valuable benefits for the society in general because of its meaningful and positive externalities and the high removal cost of the environmental pollutants of the traditional water supply and sewage system both contributing directly to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, 4/5 environmental impacts derived from the use of traditional alternative pollute more than twice as much as the VFCW does. Lastly, the cleaning costs difference between both alternatives is 1,984,335?.

Contaminants in Urban Stormwater: Barcelona case study

Abstract. Today's cities face simultaneous challenges due to rapidly growing populations, urban sprawl, climate change, and environmental pollution which pose a pressure on our traditional urban drinking water supplies. In this context, stormwater could augment our over-drafted urban groundwater resources. However, urban stormwater runoff carries a myriad of dissolved contaminants (e.g., organics, metals, nutrients), which pose a serious risk to the environmental and public health. Moreover, dissolved contaminants of urban origin – such as trace metals and organic compounds of emerging concern – may not be adequately removed by conventional stormwater treatments. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to fully understand stormwater contaminant presence, transport, and fate in the built environment to design novel or improve conventional treatment systems. To address this knowledge gap, we have conducted 7 field sampling campaigns during storm events at different Barcelona locations (within 3 districts) to investigate contaminant presence in different urban compartments (e.g., roofs, conventional streets with automobile traffic, pedestrian streets, and green infrastructure outlets). Preliminary results have confirmed presence of toxic metals in Barcelona urban rain and stormwater runoff along with significant differences depending on the catchment areas. After a storm event, trace metal concentrations followed the order: roof rain < pedestrian street runoff < conventional street runoff. Additionally, blue-green infrastructures (bioretention systems) had lower mean metal concentrations at the effluent (outlet) than the influents (inlet). Our initial results on metal occurrence in stormwater collected in the city of Barcelona will provide stormwater quality foundation for water agencies, municipalities, and companies in other water-stressed regions with Mediterranean climate.

Guidelines for Renewal and Securitization of a Critical Infrastructure Based on IoT Networks

Global warming has increased uncertainty regarding managing traditional water supply systems. Unfortunately, there is a need for the smart management of water supply systems. This work aims to design a solution for renewing and securing critical infrastructure that supplies water and provides water purification inside the range of applications of Industry 4.0 for Smart Cities. Therefore, we analyze the renewal requirements and the applicable use cases and propose a solution based on IoT networks for critical infrastructure in the urban environment. We describe the architecture of the IoT network and the specific hardware for securing a water supply and wastewater treatment chain. In addition, the water level control process for the supply chain and the system that ensures the optimal level of chemicals for wastewater treatment are detailed. Finally, we present the guidelines for infrastructure operators to carry out this operation within Industry 4.0, constituting a development framework for future research on the design of Smart Cities.

WASTEWATER RECLAIMING AND RECYCLING: ESSENCE AND DIRECTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Topicality. The topicality of the research results from the fact that according to the data of the United Nations (UN), 36% of the world's population lives in water-scarce regions, in particular Ukraine is ranked 125th among 179 countries on the indicator of total internal renewable water resources per capita, which states that Ukraine is poorly supplied with freshwater. In recent years, special attention of international communities have been paid to the wastewater reclaiming and recycling as a possible alternative to traditional water supply and solution of water scarcity problem. In the UN World Water Development Report 2017, it is noted the need to use wastewater as a resource since fresh water has become increasingly scarce. Aim and tasks. The purpose of the article is to determine the essence, features and directions for wastewater reclaiming and recycling implementation to ensure sustainable water resources management in Ukraine. Research results. The results indicate that climate change, rapid urbanization and population growth affect the state of water resources and the population's access to fresh water. In order to find ways to overcome the natural water shortage, it was proposed to use alternative sources of water supply, in particular, wastewater reclaiming and recycling. Based on the analysis of national and foreign regulatory legislation, the modern semantic content of the concepts of "wastewater reclaiming" and "wastewater recycling" has been clarified, and a scheme for introducing the wastewater reclaiming and recycling into the water cycle has been developed. Statistical data on providing the population of Ukraine with centralized water supply and drainage systems and the amount of volumes of untreated wastewater discharged into the environment have been analyzed. The analysis was carried out and the main areas of recycling of wastewater reclaiming components were determined. Conclusion. Considering the importance of ensuring sustainable water resources management, the authors of the article determined the place and role in the introduction of wastewater reclaiming and recycling. The study demonstrated that 97% of Ukraine's wastewater is not recycled, and more than a quarter of the discharged wastewater in the Odessa region is discharged without proper treatment, which has extremely detrimental consequences for the environment and human health. The stages of technological processes of centralized water supply and sanitation services are considered and the introduction of wastewater reclaiming into the water use cycle, in particular in the energy, manufacturing, agricultural sectors and for municipal and domestic needs, is proposed. It is argued that the introduction of wastewater reclaiming and recycling contributes to the development of a circular economy and provides certain socio-economic-environmental benefits, including reducing environmental impact, avoiding overexploitation of water resources and increasing water availability in arid regions of Ukraine.

Traditional water supply systems at lack of water regions and their modern situation (cases of M’zab Valley, Algeria and Miyakojima Island, Japan)

The historical development of water supply systems for portable and irrigation water gathering is traditional for lack of water regions of the world. The diversity of such systems can be observed at Middle East and Asiatic cultures. Some of them are still in use or partly in use now. The study cases of the work are traditional distribution systems of rainwater in the deserted M’zab Valley, Algeria and tropical Miyakojima Island, Japan. The research is aiming to precise the modern situation of traditional water supply systems estimating the possible ways of theirs sustainable development and revitalization. The research conducted on the case grounds mainly with field studies and interview methods. The water supply system of M’zab has been implemented more than eight centuries ago and is still in use. It is a complex hydraulic system based on the principle of total utilization of torrent water and on the equitable division of this water over the entire oasis. Local people now beginning to understand its cultural significance aiming to popularise it. Miyakojima Island medieval water supply underground system consist of the network of cave sources integrated with architecture. Now it is in decay not using like a source of potable water but still preserving some sacral significance with not pointing on popularization. For the sustainability and revitalization of the traditional water supply systems now it is not enough to preserve their initial function but also need to develop the potency of tourist attraction with reservation as cultural property.

Development of an Intelligent Urban Water Network System

Water and wastewater services have been provided through centralised systems for more than a century. The operational and management approaches of the water systems face challenges induced by population growth, urbanisation, and ageing infrastructure. Recent advancements in water system engineering include the development of intelligent water networks. These intelligent networks address management and operational challenges associated with pressure and flow variations in the water network and it reduces the time for identification of pipe bursts and leakages. Research is required into the development of intelligent water networks to ensure consistent data collection and analysis that can filter and aggregate into actionable events to reduce water leakage, leakage cost, customer disruptions, and damages. Implementation of an intelligent algorithm with an integrated Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system, high-efficiency smart sensors, and flow meters, including a tracking mechanism, will significantly reduce system management and operational issues and ensure improved service delivery for the community. This paper discusses the history of water systems, traditional water supply systems, need for intelligent water network, and design/development of the intelligent water networks. A framework for the intelligent water network has also been presented in this paper.

An IUWM incorporated model to improve water supply reliability in intermittent and no service areas

Water supply reliability is an increasingly important aspect of water system design, especially in regions with unreliable water supply. Most water systems initially designed as continuous supply systems are affected by constraints such as limited freshwater supply, infrastructure inadequacy and insufficient expansion, poor operations and management, contributing to Intermittent Water Supply (IWS) or no services in some regions. IWS is a common condition in developing countries like India. Many approaches have been developed to address water availability and quality challenges, including Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM). The main principle of IUWM is to incorporate non-conventional water supply sources, such as stormwater, rooftop rainwater and recycled wastewater, to augment water supply and provide fit-for-purpose water. However, in developing countries, IUWM principles have not been sufficiently investigated to understand how they can improve water supply reliability in regions with IWS or no centralized water supply. In this study, an IUWM incorporated model was developed to understand how supply reliability can be improved in areas with IWS or no services, with Bangalore city in India, as a case study. Five different supply configurations to incorporate IUWM principles were analyzed and compared to identify the most efficient way to incorporate non-conventional water sources. The analysis identifies potential supply issues in the area under the current centralized water supply. The results show that the traditional water supply system can not meet the minimum water demand. The reliability can be improved from <50% to 100% with the incorporation of non-conventional water sources.

Application of Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm in Photovoltaic Constant Pressure Water Supply Electrical Control System

The traditional constant water supply system has problems, low operation efficiency, and the strong nonlinear and large time delay of the control system. It did not meet the needs of water supply in remote and desert areas. To solve these problems, the PV constant voltage water supply system is designed to optimize the Proportion Integration Differentiation (PID) controller method based on the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. The programmable logic controller (PLC) and frequency converter are used as the core control mechanism of the system, the water pump motor as an actuator, the pressure sensor and the level sensor be used as a feedback mechanism, Photovoltaic power generation equipment is used in power supply agencies. In this paper, the objective utilizes the PSO algorithm to optimize the parameters of the PID controller, and the principle and control process of the PSO-PID algorithm are analyzed. Simulation results by MATLAB verify that the PSO-PID algorithm has better dynamic and steady-state performance than the traditional PID algorithm. Finally, the practicability and effectiveness of the water supply system are proved by the PLC of the OMRON-CP1H series and the touch screen of the WEINVIEW series.

Overall Rate Kinetics Model for Chlorine Demand of Urban Rainfall Runoff

The built environment significantly alters the rainfall-runoff response and associated transport of particulate matter (PM), chemicals, and pathogens in the urban water cycle. Urban water sustainability requires mitigation of runoff impacts while providing a potential resource to traditional water supply sources. Chlorination for wastewater, combined sewer overflows (CSOs), and reuse waters is the most common disinfection practice to ensure public health. Chlorinated wastewater effluent is a common reclaimed water for reuse applications such irrigation and mixing with source-area runoff during wet-weather events. Chlorine demand models have been developed for source waters and wastewaters. The current study adds to this knowledge base through modeling of sodium hypochlorite demand kinetics for source-area runoff PM and also dissolved phases utilizing dissolved chemical oxygen demand (CODd). Second-order rate models of hypochlorite demand are developed for both phases, with the PM phase subdivided into three fractions on a granulometric basis. PM (suspended, settleable, and sediment) fractions exert a significant hypochlorite demand compared with the dissolved fraction. Ultimate chlorine demand translates to 36% of the CODd, of which 39% of the demand is exerted in less than 5 min, which is in the range of residence times for small manufactured unit operations that are common for best management practices (BMPs). Chlorine demand is 350 mg/g for suspended, 320 mg/g for settleable, and 650 mg/g for sediment PM.

A review of seventeen years of bank filtration in Brazil: results, benefits and challenges - Part 2: states of Pernambuco and Minas Gerais

This work is the second part of “A Review of seventeen years of bank filtration in Brazil: results, benefits, and challenges”. Part 2 describes the research on water treatment carried out in the states of Pernambuco (Olinda city, metropolitan region of Recife and region of Garanhuns) and Minas Gerais (Viçosa city). The main benefit of bank filtration (BF) is that it is an alternative way of obtaining a higher quality raw water compared to the traditional water supply methods when local geological conditions are favorable. BF technology highlights other relevant aspects: it may become one of the main water pretreatments in rivers or lakes with sandy sediments; it is possible to obtain quality water in a well up to the first impenetrable layer (30 m deep); the technology removes 100% of total and fecal coliforms; it may reduce water turbidity at high levels; its pretreatment application may reduce the amount of inputs in the water and, consequently, the generated sludge. Keywords: Bank Filtration. Water Treatment. Local Geological Conditions. Pretreatment. Impenetrable Layer.

Design and Development of Water Supply and Drainage Virtual Simulation Training System

Traditional practical teaching of water supply and drainage is often faced with problems such as limited faculty and course time, easy worn-out of equipment and safety risk in practical training, which brings many inconveniences to schools, teachers and students. In order to make up for the shortage of traditional water supply and drainage practical training teaching, the teaching environment and the process was simulated by virtual reality technology, and a virtual simulation training system for water supply and drainage was developed. Taking the course project of steel pipe threading as an example, this paper shows the construction situation of manual and electric steel pipe threading project, systematically explains the principle involved in the virtual training system of water supply and drainage, emphatically expounds the key technologies, and the implementation scheme was given.

Analysis of the Water–Energy Nexus of Treated Wastewater Reuse at a Municipal Scale

Treated wastewater has the potential to be a feasible alternative to supply non-potable uses and avoid water scarcity in urban areas, but it is important to understand and compare the associated energy consumption and CO2 emissions. This study presents a comparative analysis of the water–energy nexus associated with the traditional water supply and to the alternative reuse of treated wastewater, both for non-potable purposes. A case study of a Portuguese municipality was considered, regarding golf course irrigation and municipal gardens irrigation. A balance between production and demand was established, and the energy consumption and CO2 emissions were calculated considering the supply with drinking water and with treated wastewater. Three scenarios were defined to analyze the water–energy nexus for different configurations of the potential end-uses: (1) golf course supply, (2) municipal irrigation supply and (3) simultaneous supply to the golf course and to municipal irrigation. A quality analysis was also carried out by comparing the records from discharged wastewater quality parameters with the limits presented in the legislation for each proposed non-potable use. The results show that all scenarios present significant annual savings from using treated wastewater instead of drinking water from the public network, especially scenarios 1 and 3, that consider the golf course irrigation (water costs decrease by about 60,000.00 EUR/year). Regarding the water–energy nexus, this study reveals that treated wastewater spends less energy on its production and supply and produces fewer CO2 emissions. The energy savings can reach an average value of about kWh/year, with 5300 fewer kg of CO2 emitted in the best scenario.

Optimal Model of Desalination Planning Under Uncertainties in a Water Supply System

A requirement for developing desalination efforts in coastal regions suffering water scarcity is proposed to address the increased water demand and limited traditional water supply. The determination of a plant capacity and water allocation scheme in a multiple-source water supply system, as the first problem in planning desalination under streamflow and water demand uncertainties, remains a challenge. To address this gap, an interval-parameter two-stage stochastic programming model is developed in this study. The first-stage problem is to determine a proper desalination plant capacity, and the second is the development of a water allocation scheme under the uncertainties of natural streamflows, water demands, benefits and economic losses. The objective function is to maximize the net benefit of the system, and the cost function of desalination, including capital and operational costs, implying environmental impact, is linearized within a range of plant capacities to solve the model. The proposed approach is applied to an urban area of Weihai in China to illustrate the validity of the model. The results suggest a capacity of 46 × 103 m3/d in 2030 and 55 × 103 m3/d in 2040. Sensitivity analyses of the parameters indicate that a decrease in the unit price of electricity leads to an increase in the utilization level of desalinated seawater. A complementary relationship was observed between reclaimed water and desalinated seawater, in that a decrease in the use rate of reclaimed water from 0.38 to 0.18 led to a 15% increase in desalinated plant capacity.

Extending traditional water supplies in inland communities with nontraditional solutions to water scarcity

AbstractUrban communities around the world are grappling with the challenges associated with population increases, drought, and projected water shortages. With a substantial global shortfall between water supply and demand expected by 2030, water planning strategies must adapt to a new reality characterized by higher temperatures and less precipitation, requiring new ways of thinking about water management, use, and governance. Commonplace strategies such as water conservation and nonpotable water reuse might not be sufficient to adequately stretch water supplies in water‐scarce parts of the industrialized world. In the United States, planned potable water reuse (i.e., purification of domestic wastewater for reuse as drinking water) is emerging as a way forward to mitigate water shortages without significant changes to lifestyle, behavior, or infrastructure. But potable reuse is not the only solution: paradigm shifting and disruptive options that more holistically address water scarcity, such as composting toilets and market‐based approaches to water use, are also gaining traction, and they could be pursued alongside or instead of potable water reuse. However, these options would require more significant changes to lifestyles, behavior, infrastructure, and governance. While all of the options considered offer advantages, they each come with new concerns and challenges related to cost, public perception, social norms, and policy. The goal of this work is to consider a number of plausible solutions to water scarcity—partial and complete, traditional and disruptive—to stimulate forward‐looking thinking about the increasingly common global problem of water scarcity.This article is categorized under: Engineering Water &gt; Sustainable Engineering of Water Engineering Water &gt; Planning Water