Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Research Articles

Enhancing hydrologic modelling through the representation of traditional rainwater harvesting systems: A case study of water tanks in South India

AbstractWater tanks as traditional rainwater harvesting systems for agriculture are widely distributed in South India. They have a strong impact on hydrological processes, affecting streamflow in rivers as well as evapotranspiration. This study aims at an accurate representation of water harvesting systems in a hydrologic model to improve model performance and assessment of the catchment water balance. To this end, spatio‐temporal variations of water bodies between the years 2016 and 2018 and the months of January and May 2017 were derived from Sentinel‐2 satellite data to parameterize the water tanks (reservoir) parameters in the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT+) model of the Adyar basin, Chennai, India. Approximately 16% of the basin is covered by water tanks. The initial model performance was evaluated for two model setups, with and without water tanks. The best model run was selected with a multi‐metric approach comparing observed and modelled monthly streamflow for 5000 model runs. The final model evaluation was carried out by comparing estimated water body areas by the model and remote sensing observations for January to May 2017. The results showed that representing water tanks in the hydrologic model led to an improvement in the representation of the seasonal variations of streamflow for the whole simulation period (2004–2018). The model performance was classified as good and very good for the calibration (2004–2011) and validation (2012–2018) periods as NSE varies between 0.67 and 0.85, KGE varies between 0.65 and 0.72, PBIAS varies between −24.1 and −23.6, and RSR varies between 0.57 and 0.39. The best fit was shown for the high and middle flow segments of the hydrograph where the coefficient of determination (R2) ranges from 0.81 to 0.97 and 0.75 to 0.81, respectively. The monthly variation of water body areas in 2017 estimated by the hydrologic model was consistent with changes observed in remote sensing surveys. In summary, the water tank parametrization using remote sensing techniques enhanced the hydrologic model's efficiency and applicability for future studies.

Occurrence of metals, phthalate esters, and perfluoroalkyl substances in cellar water and their relationship with bacterial community in rural areas of China

Water cellars are traditional rainwater harvesting facilities that have been widely used in rural areas of northwest China. However, there are few reports about the water quality and health risk caused by the cellar water, especially phthalate esters (PAEs) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). This study investigated and assessed the health risks caused by the metals, PAEs, PFASs and bacterial communities in cellar water. The results showed that the turbidity and total number of bacterial colonies ranged from 4.7 to 58.5 NTU and 5–557 CFU/mL, respectively. The turbidity and total number of bacterial colonies were the main water quality problems. Due to high concentration of Tl (0.005–0.171 μg/L), the samples reached a high level of metal pollution. PAEs showed no non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk. The perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were the main components of PFASs. PFOA and PFOS reached a moderate risk level in many cellar water samples. Moreover, Tl, Pb, As, PFBA and PFBS could change the bacterial community composition and induce the enrichment of bacterial functions related to human diseases. Besides these parameters, dissolved oxygen (DO) also affected the bacterial functions related to human diseases. Therefore, more attention should be paid to turbidity, DO, Tl, Pb, As, PFOA, PFOS, PFBA and PFBS in the cellar water. These results are meaningful for the water quality guarantee and health protection in rural areas of China.

Scaling Up Indigenous Rainwater Harvesting: A Preliminary Assessment in Rajasthan, India

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has the potential to enhance the sustainability of ground and surface water to meet increasing water demands and constrained supplies, even under a changing climate. Since arid and semi-arid regions frequently experience highly variable spatiotemporal rainfall patterns, rural communities have developed indigenous RWH techniques to capture and store rainwater for multiple uses. However, selecting appropriate sites for RWH, especially across large regions, remains challenging since the data required to evaluate suitability using critical criteria are often lacking. This study aimed to identify the essential criteria and develop a methodology to select potential RWH sites in Rajasthan (India). We combined GIS modeling (multicriteria decision analysis) with applied remote sensing techniques as it has the potential to assess land suitability for RWH. As assessment criteria, spatial datasets relating to land use/cover, rainfall, slope, soil texture, NDVI, and drainage density were considered. Later, weights were assigned to each criterion based on their relative importance to the RWH system, evidence from published literature, local expert advice, and field visits. GIS analyses were used to create RWH suitability maps (high, moderate, and unsuited maps). The sensitivity analysis was also carried out for identified weights to check the inadequacy and inconsistency among preferences. It was estimated that 3.6%, 8.2%, and 27.3% of the study area were highly, moderately, and unsuitable, respectively, for Chauka implementation. Further, sensitivity analysis results show that LULC is highly sensitive and NDVI is the least sensitive parameter in the selected study region, which suggests that changing the weight of these parameters is more likely to decide the outcome. Overall, this study shows the applicability of the GIS-based MCDA approach for up-scaling the traditional RWH systems and its suitability in other regions with similar field conditions, where RWH offers the potential to increase water resource availability and reliability to support rural communities and livelihoods.

Combining green roofs and rainwater harvesting systems in university buildings under different climate conditions

Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHS) are an alternative solution with the potential to increase water supply security and reduce the pressure on water resources and urban stormwater drainage systems. Likewise, Green Roofs are a nature-based solution with several ecosystem services able to improve well-being in densely urbanized areas. Despite these benefits, the combination of both solutions is still a knowledge gap to be explored. To address this issue, the paper explores the potential of integrating traditional rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) with extensive green roofs (EGR), while simultaneously evaluating the performance of traditional RWHS in buildings with high and variable water consumption patterns across different climatic conditions. The analyses were carried out assuming two university buildings hypothetically located in three distinct climates (Aw - Tropical Savanna, Cfa - Humid Subtropical, and Csa - Hot-summer Mediterranean). The results show that the relationship between available water and demand is the key factor that defines if the system is most suitable for saving water, reducing stormwater runoff rates, or dual-purpose (when there is a balance between non-potable water supply and capture of stormwater). Combined systems were most effective when there is a balanced rainfall distribution over the year, as in humid subtropical regions. Under these conditions, a combined system designed for dual purposes could potentially have a green roof coverage of up to 70% of the total catchment area. Conversely, climates that have well-defined rainy and dry seasons such as Aw and Csa, may limit the effectiveness of a combined system (RWHS+EGR), being not able to supply water demands during certain periods of the year. However, if the primary objective is effective stormwater management, a combined system should be strongly considered. Because green roofs provide other ecosystem benefits that can contribute to enhancing urban resilience in the face of climate change.

Traditional Rain Water Harvesting in the State of Rajasthan

Water has been harvested in Rajasthan since antiquity, by our ancestors perfecting the art of water management. Many water harvesting structures and water conveyance systems, specific to the eco-regions and culture have been developed. Water conservation is a practice needed for daily uses of man, animals, vegetation and agriculture. In Rajasthan, various techniques are used to save water, which are practical and nature friendly. Even from before the age of Kalibangan civilization, till today many practices are seen in different parts of Rajasthan. There are many traditional practices used for conserving rain water; e.g. forts surrounded by water canals for protection from enemies (ikjs[k nqxZ). The civilians of state continue to build structures to collect and store the monsoon rain. Some unique water conservation techniques are still practiced in state and are efficient. These are sometimes better than the present-day water-saving techniques. The paper summarizes the transformation over the years in the construction and advancements of water conservation practices in Rajasthan. In dry regions, these practices have helped people survive tough times. Traditional methods may have a few challenges to overcome, but they have proven to be sustainable over a long period of time. In order to fight environmental degradation of the present and future, it is important to develop holistic and sustainable strategies, especially in vulnerable regions.

Reviving traditional rain-water harvesting system and artificial groundwater recharge

Reviving traditional rain-water harvesting system and artificial groundwater recharge

Modern Use of Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Practices: An Assessment of Cisterns’ Water Supply Potential in West Mani, Greece

Water has always been a driver of human civilization. The first human civilizations thrived in places with an abundance of water, typically nearby large rivers as the Tigris–Euphrates, Yang Che and Nile. The invention and construction of hydraulic infrastructure came only later, in prehistoric times, triggered by the expansion of humanity in water-scarce areas. The ancient Greeks invented impressive hydraulic works and small-scale structures, some of which, such as cisterns, were still fully operational until the 20th century. We present a model that explains the use of cisterns in the water-scarce area of West Mani, which allows us to assess the potential of this traditional rainfall harvesting practice to support the modern water supply needs. To assess the system’s reliability, we employ a long-term simulation of a typical cistern system, using synthetic rainfall series from a stochastic model, and assuming variable water demand on a monthly scale. We show that a proper restoration of the cisterns could be sustainable as a complementary water supply source, decreasing the area’s drinking water cost and increasing the locals’ resilience against water shortages. In addition, we highlight the links between the area’s hydroclimate and its history and discuss the cultural merits of reviving and preserving this centuries-long practice.

Assessment of traditional rainwater harvesting system in barren lands of a semi-arid region: A case study of Rajasthan (India)

Study regionDudu station, Rajasthan, India Study focusRainwater harvesting can be used as a method to recharge aquifers. This can happen with a variety of scales and technologies. One such example is shallow infiltration ponds (Chaukas) which recharge groundwater and increase soil moisture facilitating pastureland development. A HYDRUS-1D model was used to estimate potential groundwater recharge. The model was calibrated using field data from 2019 and validated using data from 2020. The time series of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was derived at annual scale to assess changes in the vegetation cover. New hydrological insights for the regionThe modeling revealed that an additional 5% of the rainfall depth was being recharged into the groundwater. In addition, the additional soil moisture was allowing natural grass cover to develop, which could be used by the local community as pastureland. These twin benefits that the local communities are realizing could be scaled up beyond Dudu, to India, and worldwide, as many regions have barren land that is slightly sloping, together with permeable soils, which are the only conditions for the construction of Chaukas. These Chauka systems have helped in sustainable water resources management in these water-stressed regions and the additional livelihood support through developed pastures for animal husbandry.

Why indigenous water systems are declining and how to revive them: A rough set analysis

For many centuries, rainwater harvesting (RWH) was the main source of water in many ancient countries. However, over the last four decades, its use has been declining steadily. RWH structures fell into disrepair and were abandoned or were only occasionally used. Taking Sana'a Basin in Yemen as a case study, we examined the underlying factors for the decline and explored ways to reverse it. We interviewed 100 farmers and 65 experts and visited 22 RWH systems, both abandoned and still in use. We used rough set analysis to analyze RWH systems data. The overall results showed that the government plays a crucial role in the operational status of the RWH systems. However, the government's rhetoric on the importance of investing in traditional RWH, very few projects were actually implemented or maintained. In contrast, access to groundwater was heavily promoted making it the preferred water source. However, the water table became depleted and there was a dependency on diesel. Other socioeconomic factors including ownership, limited capacity of RWH systems, the availability of imported food, and rural-urban migration were other secondary reasons for abandonment. Without a shift in government support from groundwater to rainwater harvesting, this long-term decline is likely to continue.

Transforming livestock productivity through watershed interventions: A case study of Parasai-Sindh watershed in Bundelkhand region of Central India

CONTEXTGlobal experiences reveal the positive impact of watershed-based interventions in improving livelihoods and environmental security. In the drylands, increasing forage resources and improving livestock productivity is a critical challenge. OBJECTIVESThe overarching aim of this paper is to analyse the impact of watershed-based interventions on livestock population, productivity, fodder resources, and biomass availability. The paper describes the interrelationship between land, water, crop, and livestock and how the gap in forage deficit can be bridged through a range of watershed interventions. METHODSThe study was undertaken in the Parasai-Sindh watershed of Central India between 2011 and 2016. A 300-year-old defunct haveli (a traditional rainwater harvesting structure) was renovated and nine check dams along the drainage line were constructed. Nearly 25,000 running-meters of field bunds were constructed. Large fields (2-3 ha) were divided into relatively smaller plots (0.3–0.5 ha) to reduce runoff velocity. The impact of watershed interventions on water availability, livestock productivity, forage yield, and income was studied through hydrological monitoring, primary household survey and principal component analysis (PCA) biplot and hierarchical clustering. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThe watershed interventions enhanced groundwater availability leading to greater fodder availability, 22% increase in livestock population (ACU) and a 120% increase in milk production over a period of five years. The bovine population recorded a surge of 193% (cattle) and 32% (buffalo) over this period. Mean dry matter (DM, fodder) availability also increased from 10 t/household/year to 16.7 t/household/year owing to improved water availability. Groundnut (rainy season) and wheat (post rainy season) contributed significantly as forage resources. There was an annual forage demand of 5560 t DM for a livestock population of 2175 ACU in 2011 and of 6770 t DM for a livestock population of 2650 ACU in 2016. Annual forage biomass availability was estimated at 4219 t DM in 2011 and 6977 t DM in 2016. There was a deficit of 1341 t DM (24%) in 2011 which turned into a 3% surplus of 210 t DM in 2016 through watershed-based interventions. With increased cropping intensity and milk production, average annual household income increased from US$ 1325 to US$ 2430 over the five-year period. SIGNIFICANCEThis case study clearly illustrates the impact of watershed-based interventions on livestock population, productivity, forage resources, and biomass availability to bridge the gap in forage deficit. Its findings serve as a guide to widely scale up watershed-based interventions for improved water and biomass availability, and livestock productivity in semi-arid and dryland regions.

Long-Term Sustainability of Water Cellars in Traditional Chinese Villages: Factors Influencing Continuous Use and Effective Water Management Initiatives.

Traditional rainwater harvesting systems have seen a shift of emphasis in recent years. While recognizing its social, economic and environmental contributions, sustainable use in a modern context can be vulnerable. Through a case study, this study focuses on the long-term sustainability of water cellars in traditional villages if reliable piped water is introduced. The aim is to discern the factors and renovation methods that influence residents’ willingness to continue using these water cellars. The results show that the overall willingness to use them is very low. However, regardless of their continued use or non-use, only a few residents would landfill them. Most residents were interested in their renovation, especially regarding simplifying rainwater harvesting methods. In addition, the management time for rainwater harvesting and heritage identity is positively correlated with the willingness for sustainable use; conversely, the identification of the environmental contribution has no positive correlation. Given these findings, we propose carrying out effective renovation that changes the rainwater catchment surface to roofs and increases residents’ awareness that water cellars can only be heritage if they are in use. By defining the long-term sustainability of a water cellar, this study shows how a quantitative approach focusing on heritage users can offer important insights into a constructive evolution rather than a destructive reconstruction under the influence of modernization. Finally, this study provides planners and water resource managers with effective, sustainable management practices for water cellars as well as similar systems in a historical context.

Traditional Rainwater Harvesting and Water Conservation Practices of Kerala State, South India

Traditional Rainwater Harvesting and Water Conservation Practices of Kerala State, South India

Sustainability of Improved Crop Varieties and Agricultural Practices: A Case Study in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia

Technological change has been the major driving force for increasing agricultural productivity and promoting agriculture development in developing countries. To improve the agricultural productivity and farmers’ livelihoods, several agricultural technologies (improved crop varieties and related agricultural practices) were introduced by various agencies to the farmers in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Thus, the objective of this study is to identify these technologies, and evaluate their characteristics and sustainability. The data were collected from farmers, agricultural extension workers, and agricultural experts, through a series of focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and farm observations, selected through purposive and random sampling techniques. Results showed that extension systems, social networks, or research projects were the agencies that introduced the technologies to the farmers. Haricot beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and early and mid-maturing maize (Zea mays L.), as well as agricultural practices like row-sowing, banding fertilizer application, intercropping, and traditional rainwater-harvesting, were found to be in continuous use by the farmers. In contrast, the use of extra-early-maturing maize, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.), as well as the use of related practices, including harvesting maize at physiological maturity, seed priming and fertilizer microdosing, were the technologies that were discontinued at the time of pursuing this study. Most of the continuing technologies had a high potential for reducing the vulnerability of the rain-fed agriculture to rainfall variability. Regardless of sources, the national extension system supported technologies that were integrated into the system only. Most of the discontinued technologies were found to be introduced by the research projects. These technologies were not brought into the attention of policy-makers for their integration into the extension system. The farmers also disliked a few of them for unfitting the existing socioeconomic setting. Whereas, the technologies that were introduced by the social networks were found to be widely used by the farmers, though they were not supported by the extension system. This is because most such technologies offer better yield and income. For instance, social networks have popularized haricot beans and hybrid maize because of their higher benefits to farmers. Farmers consider both socioeconomic and agroecological conditions for selecting and using technologies, whereas the extension system centers on existing agroecological conditions for recommending and supporting agricultural technologies. Consideration of both socioeconomic and agroecological settings would increase the prospect of a technology for sustainable adoption. Overall, rainfall variability, high price and poor access to improved seeds, farmers’ poor economic conditions, and the inadequate linkage between extension systems, social networks and research projects, remain critical factors influencing the sustainable use of agricultural technologies. It is, thus, commendable that policymakers should consider local socioeconomic and agroecological settings in recommending and supporting agricultural technologies besides instituting a strong consortium of extension systems, research institutes, research projects, social networks and farmers for improved agricultural technology development, extension system and sustainable adoption.

Sustainable Water Management in the Tourism Economy: Linking the Mediterranean’s Traditional Rainwater Cisterns to Modern Needs

Communities on islands with mass-tourism, like Santorini, rely on vast quantities of water to develop the local economy. Today’s inhabitants of Santorini have largely abandoned the traditional cisterns that were used to sustain the island’s pre-modern civilizations in favor of water obtained from desalinization, ship deliveries, and well withdrawals. In June 2016, Cornell University researchers worked with the Water and Sewage Authority of Thera (DEYATH) to assess the viability of improving sustainability and water efficiency by restoring traditional rainwater harvesting and storage cisterns. The team surveyed five cisterns, held meetings with water authority staff and mayoral leadership, conducted interviews with local tourism stakeholders, and coordinated with Global Water Partnership-Mediterranean. One conclusion was that cisterns could be rehabilitated as decentralized storage reservoirs and integrated into the island’s centralized water systems, or alternatively, serve as educational and cultural spaces used to communicate the importance of water to residents and tourists. The research findings highlight how multi-stakeholder partnerships could assist local authorities with developing new water management initiatives to foster more sustainable models of tourism development.

The socioecohydrology of rainwater harvesting in India: understanding water storage and release dynamics across spatial scales

Abstract. Rainwater harvesting (RWH), the small-scale collection and storage of runoff for irrigated agriculture, is recognized as a sustainable strategy for ensuring food security, especially in monsoonal landscapes in the developing world. In south India, these strategies have been used for millennia to mitigate problems of water scarcity. However, in the past 100 years many traditional RWH systems have fallen into disrepair due to increasing dependence on groundwater. This dependence has contributed to accelerated decline in groundwater resources, which has in turn led to increased efforts at the state and national levels to revive older RWH systems. Critical to the success of such efforts is an improved understanding of how these ancient systems function in contemporary landscapes with extensive groundwater pumping and shifted climatic regimes. Knowledge is especially lacking regarding the water-exchange dynamics of these RWH tanks at tank and catchment scales, and how these exchanges regulate tank performance and catchment water balances. Here, we use fine-scale, water-level variation to quantify daily fluxes of groundwater, evapotranspiration (ET), and sluice outflows in four tanks over the 2013 northeast monsoon season in a tank cascade that covers a catchment area of 28 km2. At the tank scale, our results indicate that groundwater recharge and irrigation outflows comprise the largest fractions of the tank water budget, with ET accounting for only 13–22 % of the outflows. At the scale of the cascade, we observe a distinct spatial pattern in groundwater-exchange dynamics, with the frequency and magnitude of groundwater inflows increasing down the cascade of tanks. The significant magnitude of return flows along the tank cascade leads to the most downgradient tank in the cascade having an outflow-to-capacity ratio greater than 2. At the catchment scale, the presence of tanks in the landscape dramatically alters the catchment water balance, with runoff decreasing by nearly 75 %, and recharge increasing by more than 40 %. Finally, while water from the tanks directly satisfies ∼ 40 % of the crop water requirement across the northeast monsoon season via surface water irrigation, a large fraction of the tank water is "wasted", and more efficient management of sluice outflows could lead to tanks meeting a higher fraction of crop water requirements.

A Methodology to Assess and Evaluate Rainwater Harvesting Techniques in (Semi-) Arid Regions

Arid and semi-arid regions around the world face water scarcity problems due to lack of precipitation and unpredictable rainfall patterns. For thousands of years, rainwater harvesting (RWH) techniques have been applied to cope with water scarcity. Researchers have used many different methodologies for determining suitable sites and techniques for RWH. However, limited attention has been given to the evaluation of RWH structure performance. The aim of this research was to design a scientifically-based, generally applicable methodology to better evaluate the performance of existing RWH techniques in (semi-) arid regions. The methodology integrates engineering, biophysical and socio-economic criteria using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) supported by the Geographic Information System (GIS). Jessour/Tabias are the most traditional RWH techniques in the Oum Zessar watershed in south-eastern Tunisia, which were used to test this evaluation tool. Fifty-eight RWH locations (14 jessr and 44 tabia) in three main sub-catchments of the watershed were assessed and evaluated. Based on the criteria selected, more than 95% of the assessed sites received low or moderate suitability scores, with only two sites receiving high suitability scores. This integrated methodology, which is highly flexible, saves time and costs, is easy to adapt to different regions and can support designers and decision makers aiming to improve the performance of existing and new RWH sites.

Reliability analysis of roof rainwater harvesting systems in a semi-arid region of sub-Saharan Africa: case study of Mekelle, Ethiopia

ABSTRACTCurbing water scarcity problems in semi-arid regions is a top priority for economic and social development. Alternative strategies for sustainable domestic water supply are therefore required to augment water supply with affordable cost and technology. Scant research findings in sub-Saharan Africa have, however, reported inefficiency in adapting to water scarcity problems in the region. Therefore, an investigation of domestic rainwater harvesting (RWH) reliability is important to identify factors affecting the system. We found that rainwater harvesting with the existing traditional RWH systems in Mekelle city was unreliable. Unreliability was attributed to inefficient design (the systems were installed without considering deterministically the stochastic nature of rainfall), family size, water demand, rooftop area and storage tank size.Editor M.C. Acreman; Associate editor S. Kanae

Challenges of Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Tunisia

The main objective of this article is to examine the relevance of traditional hydraulic systems in ensuring sustainable water supplies at the catchment level and to explore ways to involve farmers in rural development. The methodology we used is based on the analysis of the Tunisian experience with traditional hydraulic systems to conserve water and soil. We proceed with a description of new forms of small hydraulic structures, which, since 1960, have increased significantly throughout the arid and semiarid landscape of Tunisia. We present a strategic framework related to the mobilization of water and to the institutions operating in the field of hydro-agricultural business techniques. The findings can contribute to promoting efficient and sustainable hydro-agricultural structures among decision makers and agricultural stakeholders regarding their future projects. The conclusions we draw can also help to stimulate new thinking about current and future agricultural, social, and economic challenges not only within Tunisia but also in other arid countries in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region.

Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in a Thirsty World: A Survey of Ancient and Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Applications

AbstractThis paper provides a survey of ancient and traditional rainwater harvesting applications as effective climate adaptation strategies. Rainwater harvesting has a more significant past than a present. The fifteen identified ancient and traditional rainwater harvesting practices and the societies that practiced them may provide a key water conservation strategy for the future in vulnerable regions found in the dry‐wet, semi‐arid, and arid climatic regions. In the past several decades, there has been a call from scientific and non‐governmental organization communities to combine modern water systems and old rainwater harvesting methods or to modernize the existing rainwater harvesting knowledge to benefit human settlements facing water scarcity.

Short and Long Term Strategies for Household Water Insecurity in Ngamiland, Botswana

The paper analyses coping (short-term) and adaptation (long-term) strategies by households to address water insecurity in Ngamiland, Botswana, a middle income and semi-arid country. Quantitative (i.e. structured household questionnaires) and qualitative (i.e. key informant and informal interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation) approaches were used. The concept of water security and the actor-oriented approach inform the paper. Households in Ngamiland are experiencing water insecurity and they mainly employ coping (i.e. accessing untreated water, traditional rainwater harvesting, bulk water hauling and buying, use prioritization, and buying bottled water) as opposed to adaptation (i.e. abstracting groundwater, connecting storage tanks to main water systems and modern rainwater harvesting) strategies to deal with water insecurity. More scientific research for informing water policies and implementation of sustainable water supply strategies is required in order to enhance water security in countries like Botswana.