Traditional Masculinity Ideology Research Articles

Men’s use of cosmetic surgery and the role of traditional masculinity ideologies

In western countries, men are increasingly using cosmetic surgery. However, despite this trend, there remains a dearth of information on the prevalence, acceptance, and motivations behind men’s use of cosmetic surgery. Furthermore, the potential association between men’s use of cosmetic surgery and in particular male-specific cosmetic surgery procedures such as head hair transplant or penis enlargement and traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) has not been investigated so far. For this purpose, a cross-sectional anonymous online survey was conducted among 241 self-identifying men aged 18 years or older from the German-speaking part of Europe. Participants responded to questions about cosmetic surgery use and experiences, and completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory—Short Form (CMNI-SF) and the Male Role Norms Inventory—Short Form (MRNI-SF) questionnaires to assess conformity with and endorsement of TMI. Of the 241 men investigated, 47 (19.5%) had undergone cosmetic surgery. The most common types of cosmetic surgeries reported were wrinkle treatment, eyelid correction, and head-hair transplant. Penis enlargement procedures were reported by three (6.4%) of the 47 men who had undergone cosmetic surgery. The main reasons for undergoing surgery were to feel better (72.3%) and look better (55.3%), while to increase sexual success (17.0%) and to increase manliness (14.9%) were also reported. Logistic regression models showed that higher conformity to TMI (CMNI-SF) was associated with higher odds of having undergone cosmetic surgery. The results highlight the overall increase in men’s cosmetic surgery use and its specific characteristics. The significant positive association between conformity to TMI and men’s use of cosmetic surgery suggests that men increasingly use cosmetic surgery as a means to assert power, success, dominance, and sexual success.

Evaluation of male-specific psychoeducation for major depressive disorder compared to cognitive behavioral therapy psychoeducation: A randomized controlled investigation in mentally distressed men

Background: Research suggests that male-specific psychotherapy approaches for major depressive disorder (MDD) that consider traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) may achieve improved treatment efficacy and reduced therapy dropout. However, studies examining male-specific psychotherapy for MDD or specific therapy aspects remain lacking. Methods: An anonymous online study on men’s mental health examined 152 self-reporting mentally distressed cisgender men (M age = 25.5 ± 9.1) from German-speaking countries of Europe. After completing baseline assessments (T1) of state self-esteem, state shame, positive/negative affect, depressive symptoms, and TMI, men were randomly assigned to read either a male-specific (MSP) or a cognitive behavioral therapy-oriented (CBT) psychoeducation text for MDD. Immediately afterwards, participants rated its usefulness and completed follow-up assessments (T2). Results: Men in the MSP condition showed a stronger decrease in shame and negative affect as compared to men in the CBT-psychoeducation condition. Furthermore, in the MSP condition, prototypical depression symptoms tended to increase as compared to the CBT-psychoeducation, whereas male-typical externalizing depression symptoms tended to decrease. Conclusion: MSP for MDD may help depressed men feel less ashamed about their MDD and experience less negative affect about their condition than CBT-psychoeducation. Furthermore, MSP for MDD may elicit a shift from male-typical externalizing depression symptoms to prototypical depression symptoms.

Development of Traditional Masculinity Ideology Scale and Its Association with Ambivalent Sexism

Development of Traditional Masculinity Ideology Scale and Its Association with Ambivalent Sexism

Men’s psychotherapy dropout is associated with conformity to traditional masculinity ideologies.

Men’s psychotherapy dropout is associated with conformity to traditional masculinity ideologies.

Traditional masculinity ideology and political protests in authoritarian regimes: Unpacking the role of attitudes toward political authorities.

Traditional masculinity ideology and political protests in authoritarian regimes: Unpacking the role of attitudes toward political authorities.

Fleshing Out the Ways Masculinity Threat and Traditional Masculinity Ideology Relate to Meat-Eating and Environmental Attitudes in Australian Men

Meat consumption needs to be reduced to limit climate change but achieving this requires understanding the drivers of meat consumption. In this study, we investigated two potential drivers—a contextual threat to masculinity and the stable individual difference of masculine ideology—and how they predict meat-eating intentions, attitudes, and environmentalism. Employing a sample of 375 Australian men, a population known for its high meat consumption, we did not find support that a contextual threat to men’s masculinity increased pro-meat attitudes or intentions. Instead, we found that prevailing views about masculine ideology significantly predicted meat-related attitudes and intentions, with avoidance of femininity associated with lower avoidance of meat and lower intentions to eat clean meat, and the endorsement of male dominance tied to lower pro-environmental responding. Our findings suggest that situational threats to masculinity may not robustly affect meat consumption intentions and highlight the importance of more stable individual differences in the conception of the male gender identity in maintaining men’s high meat consumption.

Man up! The mental health‐feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps

AbstractMental illnesses are among the most frequent health conditions worldwide, affecting both men and women. However, we find that men are more likely than women to avoid adopting mobile apps that are designed to promote users' mental health. Building on previous research that men are often more motivated than women to behave in gender‐congruent ways, we suggest that there exists a mental health‐feminine stereotype that acts as an obstacle to men's adoption of mental health apps. Privacy and self‐help features offered by digital mental health apps are insufficient to overcome the mental health‐stereotype that deter men from pursuing mental health support. Across five studies, we show that consumers feel more feminine when adopting mental health apps, and perceive others who adopt mental health apps to be more feminine than those who do not. We also show that presenting mental health apps in a masculine frame increases the likelihood of men adopting mental health apps, especially those with stronger adherence to traditional masculinity ideology.

Precarious Manhood Beliefs Are Positively Associated with Erectile Dysfunction in Cisgender Men.

The notions that manhood is hard to attain, easy to lose, and needs to be proven via public action constitute precarious manhood beliefs (PMB). PMB is a new concept and it remains unclear whether and how PMB relate to erectile dysfunction (ED) in cisgender men. The ability to achieve an erection remains considered as a cornerstone of masculinity and sexual performance can be conceived as a proof of one's masculinity. In this context, ED can be received as sexual failure and a threat to a man's masculinity and sense of adequacy. For these reasons, the hypothesis that PMB are associated with ED warranted empirical testing. In an anonymous online survey focusing on men's mental health conducted in German-speaking countries of Europe, 507 cisgender men (Mage = 44.2, SDage = 15.2) completed measures on PMB, sexual function, self-stigma, social desirability, and conformity to traditional masculinity ideology (TMI). Multilinear regression analysis with stepwise introduction of relevant covariates evaluated potential associations between PMB and ED. Of a 507 cisgendered male sample, 63.1% reported an increased risk for ED based on previously established cutoff points. Elevated levels of PMB endorsement among the men predicted reduced sexual and erectile function in all models, even when accounting for relevant control variables such as age, education, self-stigma, social desirability, or conformity to TMI. Group comparisons revealed that the men suffering from ED showed higher levels of PMB endorsement but not self-stigma nor TMI relative to men without ED. PMB are significantly associated with ED. While determining causality will require further study, our results may support the hypothesis that higher levels of PMB endorsement may lead to increased tension to perform sexually, resulting in increased psychological pressure and a higher risk to develop ED.

Evaluation of a male-specific psychotherapeutic program for major depressive disorder compared to cognitive behavioral therapy and waitlist: study protocol for a six-arm randomized clinical superiority trial examining depressed eugonadal and hypogonadal men receiving testosterone.

Treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) in men is complicated by the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) often leading to reluctance toward psychotherapy, therapy interfering processes, or premature termination. In addition, it has been shown that men with MDD have a significantly increased risk of being hypogonadal (e.g., total testosterone levels <12.1 nmoL/L). Therefore, it is recommended to examine depressed men with regard to their testosterone status and if hypogonadism is present to combine psychotherapy with testosterone treatment (TT). This project aims to evaluate a male-specific psychotherapeutic program (MSPP) for MDD in depressed eugonadal and hypogonadal men receiving testosterone in comparison to a standard cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for MDD and a Waitlist. The study presents a 2×3 factorial study design. In total, 144 men aged between 25 and 50 will be stratified by testosterone status (eugonadal/hypogonadal) and then randomized into one of the three conditions (MSPP, CBT, or Waitlist). Additionally, a healthy control group of 100 men will be recruited, which will undergo only baseline assessments. Both standardized psychotherapy programs will encompass 18 sessions delivered in a weekly manner. Aligned with the TT-related medical visits of the 72 hypogonadal men, all participants will be followed up with clinical assessments and bio sampling at weeks 0, 6, 15, 24, and 36. Compared to Waitlist control groups, treatment groups are expected to be more effective and efficacious (depression score reduction of ≥50%) at week 24 and at the follow-up at week 36. The MSPP is expected to show higher effectiveness and efficacy for depressive symptoms and higher acceptability (lower dropout rate) as compared to CBT. This study represents the first attempt to test a male-specific psychotherapy for MDD in a single-setting compared to standard CBT and a Waitlist control condition using randomized clinical trial methodology. In addition, the potential positive adjunct effect of psychotherapy to TT in reducing depressive burden and improving quality of life in hypogonadal depressed men represents a neglected research area and might introduce new hypogonadism screening procedures in depressed men and combined treatment approaches for depressed men suffering from hypogonadism. Limitations are the rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria, which limit the generalizability of the study results to first episode treatment naïve depressed men. ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT05435222.

It Takes Two to Tango: Links Between Traditional Beliefs About both Men’s and Women’s Gender Roles and Comfort Initiating Sex and Comfort Refusing Sex

Traditional gender roles dictate rigid rules and standards prescribing which behaviors, thoughts, and feelings are considered masculine and feminine within sexual contexts, and thus internalizing these beliefs (higher traditional gender ideology) may influence sexual attitudes. Prior theorizing has primarily focused on how women’s traditional beliefs about women’s gender roles (traditional femininity ideology) and men’s traditional beliefs about men’s gender roles (traditional masculinity ideology) influence their sexual assertiveness. Yet, men can hold traditional beliefs about women, and women can hold traditional beliefs about men, and these beliefs should have important implications for sexual assertiveness. We addressed this gap by testing how both heterosexual women’s (n = 389) and men’s (n = 393) traditional masculinity and femininity ideologies associate with their reported comfort initiating sex and comfort refusing sex in their relationships. When accounting for both sets of beliefs, women’s traditional beliefs about men’s and women’s roles interacted to predict comfort initiating sex, but not comfort refusing sex. Men’s traditional beliefs about men’s roles predicted less comfort refusing sex, and their traditional beliefs about women’s roles predicted less comfort initiating sex. This novel research underscores the importance of considering beliefs about both sets of traditional gender roles for understanding people’s sexual attitudes.

New directions in male-tailored psychotherapy for depression.

Societal, cultural, and contextual norms about how men should be and behave (so called traditional masculinity ideologies; TMI) affect men's presentation of depressive disorders, psychotherapy use, and treatment engagement. Only recently, however, male-tailored psychotherapy approaches for depressive disorders have been developed, which aim to systematically soften dysfunctional TMI. In this review, we outline the necessary groundwork as well as recent advances in research on TMI, men's help-seeking, male depression, and their interrelatedness. Subsequently, we discuss the potential value of these findings for male-tailored psychotherapy for depressive disorders. A preliminary evaluation of a male-specific psychoeducation program found that a male-specific psychoeducation text could reduce negative affect as well as state shame and potentially elicit a shift from externalizing depression symptoms toward more prototypical depression symptoms. The James' Place program, a male-tailored community-based service, improved suicidal men's overall well-being, problems, functioning, and suicide risk. The Heads Up Guys! program, an eHealth resource aimed at depressed men, reported a high and increasing global interest in their website, with considerable visitor engagement. The Man Therapy online resource improved depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and help-seeking behavior. Finally, the Men in Mind program, an online training program for clinical practitioners, increased practitioners' capacity to engage and support men in therapy. Male-tailored psychotherapy programs for depressive disorders, which are informed by recent advances in TMI research, may potentially increase therapeutic effectiveness, engagement, and adherence. While recent preliminary analyses of individual male-tailored treatment programs show promising results, extensive and systematic primary studies evaluating these programs are pending but greatly needed.

How do traditional masculinity ideologies and emotional competence relate to aggression and physical domestic violence in cisgender men?

Men are disproportionately often perpetrators of physical domestic violence (DV). Gender role constructs, such as traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI), are broadly accepted as an explanation for this effect. Emotional competence further constitutes an important role in TMI and the prevention of DV. However, the interactions between these constructs remains unclear. The present study aims to investigate associations of TMI with aggression, DV perpetration, and emotional competence, while also examining emotional competence as a potential moderator. A sample of 428 cisgender men (M age = 43.9 ± 15.3) from German-speaking countries in Europe completed an anonymous online survey that assessed TMI, aggression, and DV perpetration as well as alexithymia, emotion regulation, and self-compassion as indicators of emotional competence. Strong TMI were associated with high levels of aggression and overall reduced emotional competence, as reflected by high levels of alexithymia, frequent use of expressive suppression, and low levels of self-compassion. Strong conformity to TMI was associated with a higher likelihood for DV perpetration when considering relevant sociodemographic covariates. Moderation analyses revealed that expressive suppression buffered the association between TMI and DV perpetration. Men with strong TMI report high levels of aggression and impaired emotional competence. While strong conformity to TMI was associated with more frequent perpetration of DV, higher expressive suppression seems to buffer the association between TMI and DV perpetration. The present study highlights the importance of addressing gender ideologies when working on aggression, DV perpetration and emotional competence in men.

The contributions of gender identification and gender ideologies to the purposes of social media use in adolescence.

Gender differences in adolescent social media use are often documented in the research literature, yet few studies delve into why they occur. Accordingly, we investigated whether gender identification and gender ideologies are associated with five major purposes of social media use in adolescence (emotion and activity bonding with friends, social compensation, appearance validation, and bullying). Participants were 309 cisgender U.S. high school students (Mage = 15.74; 59% girls; 53% white) primarily using Instagram and Snapchat but also TikTok (more popular with girls) and Discord (more popular with boys) in 2019. Girls reported greater use of social media for emotion bonding, appearance validation, and social compensation compared to boys, who reported greater competitive activity bonding. Girls and boys did not differ in their use of social media for bullying. In linear regressions, masculinity ideology predicted purposes associated with girls (appearance validation, social compensation), as well as those associated with boys (competitive activity bonding), regardless of gender. Femininity ideology uniquely predicted emotion bonding and social compensation but only mediated the effect of gender for the latter. Findings illustrate that gender is important for understanding uses and gratifications of social media in adolescence, but traditional masculinity ideology is similar across genders and relates to multiple functions of social media in boys' and girls' lives. More work is needed to conceptualize gender beliefs and values in Gen Z, given recent challenges to gender binary ideology and low reliability of the scales in this study, which were developed before social media.

Traditional masculinity ideology and psychotherapy treatment outcome for military service veteran men.

Traditional masculinity ideology and psychotherapy treatment outcome for military service veteran men.

An Exploration of Masculinities and Concurrency Among Black Sexual Minority and Majority Men: Implications for HIV/STI Prevention

Black sexual minority and majority men experience disproportionate Human Immunodeficiency Virus and sexually transmitted infections (HIV/STI) rates. Identifying the factors and contexts driving these disparities is vital to reduce HIV/STI among Black men. Concurrency, or overlapping sexual partnerships, is partly responsible for driving these disparities. We used multiple masculinity theoretical frameworks to guide our analyses of the relationship between concurrency and masculinities (i.e., variations in the ways that male roles are enacted) among a nationally-representative sample of 1,709 Black men. Data for this study came from the National Survey of Family Growth. Results indicated that heteronormative traditional masculinity ideology was significantly and positively associated with engaging in concurrency. There was a significant positive relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and the odds of engaging in concurrency. Additionally, the odds of engaging in concurrency was significantly greater for renters vs. home owners. The odds of engaging in concurrency was significantly lower for sexual minority men vs. sexual majority men. Our study results demonstrate that masculinities, operationalized via heteronormative ideologies, SES, home ownership, and sexual orientation, exert a significant influence on concurrency behavior among Black men. We discuss suggestions for concurrency prevention, condom use, masculine transformation initiatives, and improving SES in future concurrency- and masculinities-related research and interventions intended to reduce HIV/STI disparities among Black sexual minority and majority men.

Masculinity, Perceived Vulnerability to COVID-19, and Adoption of Protective Behaviors

Epidemiological data show that men and women have similar probabilities of contracting COVID-19. However, men with COVID-19 tend to have more severe outcomes than women. We performed two studies to analyze the associations between gender, adherence to traditional masculinity ideology, perceived vulnerability to COVID-19, and the adoption of protective behaviors against COVID-19. In Study 1 (quota sample of the Italian adult population, N = 1,142), we found no differences between men and women in terms of the perceived probability of contracting COVID-19. However, compared to women, men perceived themselves to be less likely to suffer severe consequences if falling ill. In Study 2 (Italian community sample, N = 305), a moderated mediation model showed that adherence to traditional masculinity ideology moderated the association between being man and the perceived severity of the consequences of COVID-19, which, in turn, showed negative associations with three protective behaviors against COVID-19. The article ends with a discussion of the strengths and limitations of this research.

Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Feminist Attitudes: The Role of Identity Foreclosure

Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Feminist Attitudes: The Role of Identity Foreclosure

Is traditional masculinity ideology stable over time in men and women?

Is traditional masculinity ideology stable over time in men and women?

The Role of First-Person Depression Storytelling Online Video on Men’s Self-Stigma of Seeking Help, Traditional Masculinity Ideology, and Psychological Help-Seeking Attitudes

Men are reluctant to seek psychological help as doing so may label them as weak and vulnerable. Thus, we tested whether a first-person storytelling video could buffer men’s self-stigma of seeking help associated with traditional masculinity ideology. Adult men ( N = 396; Mage = 35.62) were randomly assigned and exposed to one of three conditions: (1) control (nothing), (2) male-sensitive brochure, (3) male-sensitive first-person storytelling video. Controlling for pre-existing depressive symptoms, multi-group path analyses with bootstrapping revealed that greater traditional masculinity ideology was associated with lower psychological help-seeking attitudes via increased self-stigma of seeking help, but this indirect effect was not significant for the video group. The direct effect was significantly lower in the video group compared to the brochure and control groups. The findings suggest that brief male-sensitive storytelling videos may be useful clinical and psychoeducational tools to help men re-examine their resistance toward seeking psychological help for depression.

Mediation and moderation of the relationship between men’s endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and intentions to seek psychotherapy.

Mediation and moderation of the relationship between men’s endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and intentions to seek psychotherapy.