Traditional Masculine Gender Role Research Articles

Sexual Identity Development and Social Ecological Facilitators and Barriers of PrEP Uptake and Adherence Among Latinx Men Who Have Sex with Men.

Latinx gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (LMSM) report lower pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use than their white, non-Latinx counterparts. We hypothesize that this disparity is partially attributable to social ecological factors that can be addressed via prevention interventions. In this retrospective study, we first examined data from 253 LMSM to determine whether theorized associations existed between acquisition of a PrEP prescription (uptake) in relation to several social ecological factors based on a conceptual framework of determinants of access to and uptake of PrEP for LMSM. We also explored relations between frequency of PrEP use (adherence) and social ecological factors with a subsample of 33 LMSM who had initiated PrEP 12months prior to assessment. In this study, individual-level factors from this framework included age and socioeconomic status. Perceived access to medical care represented both individual- and community-level determinants of PrEP uptake and adherence. Interpersonal-level factors were social support and relationship status. Structural/cultural-level factors were sexual identity development status, the masculinity norm of heterosexual self-presentation, traditional Latinx masculine gender role beliefs of machismo and caballerismo, racial identity, and immigration status. Results indicated that older men and those who endorsed the synthesis/integration status of sexual identity development were more likely to acquire a PrEP prescription during their lifetime in comparison to peers. PrEP adherence was linked with being older, reporting higher socioeconomic status, reporting more appraisal social support, self-identifying as white-Latinx, being U.S.-born, and endorsing less sexual identity uncertainty and more heterosexual self-presentation. Results specify modifiable factors that may inform tailored, community-based prevention efforts to increase PrEP use and decrease existing HIV/AIDS disparities among LMSM.

Traditional Masculine Gender Role Norms and Nonsuicidal Self-Injury in Veterans.

Reducing Veteran rates of suicide has long remained a top priority for the Veterans Health Administration, and as such, identifying correlates of suicidal behaviors is important to develop targeted interventions. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) has been identified as a robust predictor of suicide attempts; however, less is known about correlates of NSSI that may aid in upstream prevention efforts. Prior research suggests adherence to various traditional masculine gender role norms may be positively associated with NSSI. Thus, as the U.S. military is widely recognized for promoting and rewarding such norms, this study sought to build off previous research by examining the association between adherence to various masculine gender role norms and engagement in NSSI behaviors among a mixed-sex sample of U.S. Veterans (N = 124). Results showed the norm of emotional control was most strongly associated with lifetime engagement in NSSI behaviors (including the behavior of wall-object punching), whereas the norm of violence was associated with NSSI disorder. Interestingly, exploratory analyses indicated that these associations were primarily driven by women Veterans and sexual orientation status. Overall, the results highlight the importance of assessing for adherence to masculine gender role norms among all Veterans and speak to additional avenues for future research.

Examining the Role of Traditional Masculinity and Depression in Men's Risk for Contracting COVID-19.

In the light of the COVID-19 pandemic and claims that traditional masculinity may put some men at increased risk for infection, research reporting men’s health behaviors is critically important. Traditional masculine norms such as self-reliance and toughness are associated with a lower likelihood to vaccinate or follow safety restrictions. Furthermore, infection risk and traditional masculinity should be investigated in a differentiated manner including gender role orientation, underlying traditional masculine ideologies and male gender role conflict. In this pre-registered online survey conducted during March/April 2021 in German-speaking countries in Europe, 490 men completed questionnaires regarding contracting COVID-19 as confirmed by a validated test, fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S), and experience of psychological burden due to COVID-19. In addition, depression symptomatology was assessed by using prototypical internalizing and male-typical externalizing depression symptoms. Furthermore, self-identified masculine gender orientation, endorsement of traditional masculinity ideologies, and gender role conflict were measured. A total of 6.9% of men (n = 34) reported having contracted COVID-19 since the beginning of the pandemic. Group comparisons revealed that men who had contracted COVID-19 exhibited higher overall traditional masculine ideology and gender role conflict. Logistic regression controlling for confounders (age, income, education, and sexual orientation) indicated that only depression symptoms are independently associated with the risk of having contracted COVID-19. While prototypical depression symptoms were negatively associated with the risk of having contracted COVID-19, male-typical externalizing depression symptoms were positively associated with the risk of contracting COVID-19. For traditional masculinity, no robust association for an increased risk of contracting COVID-19 could be established, while higher male-typical externalizing depression symptoms were associated with an increased risk of contracting COVID-19.

Responses to Shame: Influences of Adherence to Masculinity Norms

Managing negative emotions is challenging even without the overlay of socially constructed gender role norms. We were curious about the effects of being confronted with shame on young men who either adhere strongly to traditional masculine gender roles norms or are nonconforming to these norms. We evaluated the shame responses of college men (N = 23), using the Thurston-Craddock Test of Shame (TCTS; Thurston & Craddock, 1998) as our stimulus while measuring physiological and verbal responses. Men in the traditional masculinity norms conforming group scored significantly higher (p = .001, η2 = .58) on 7 of the 11 subscales from the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI; Mahalik et al., 2003) than men in the nonconforming group. When presented with shame-based stimuli, we found differences in heart rate variability depending on the level of overt shame in the stimulus with the two groups, p = .038, η2 = .12. The use of aggressive language when confronted with overt examples of shame was not different for our comparison groups. Our results indicate that men who adhere to traditional masculine norms hold different values for interacting with women, physical confrontation, and being in control of situations and others than men who have not internalized the traditional values of American masculinity. Understanding the continuum of values and responses to difficult emotions continues to be a valuable area to study.

Freedom and flexibility: the work–family balance of single female entrepreneurs in Nigeria

PurposeWork–family research has mainly focused on nuclear families, neglecting other types of families, such as single self-employed parents. To what extent does the freedom and flexibility attached to being single and self-employed hinder or enhance single parents' work–family balance? Using role theory as a theoretical lens, this study examines single-self-employed parents' work–family balance.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on the accounts of 25 single self-employed parents in Nigeria, the article uses semi-structured interviews to examine how this group achieves work–family balance.FindingsWe found that the freedom and flexibility associated with being single and self-employed form a double-edged sword that increases the spate of singlehood and intensifies commitments to work, altogether preventing the participants in the study from achieving work–family balance. The findings also indicate that singlehood and a lack of spousal support cause and exacerbate work–family imbalance for this group. The findings further indicate that the reconstruction of functions, and the recreation of the traditional masculine gender role overwhelm single self-employed women in their entrepreneurial activities, thereby causing a lack of time and the energy required to function well in a family role, thus creating imbalance between the different spheres of life.Research limitations/implicationsThe extent to which the findings of this research can be generalised is constrained by the limited sample and scope of the research.Practical implicationsWhile literature espouses freedom and flexibility as important ingredients needed to achieve work–family balance, this study shows that they enhance inter-role role conflict. The study suggests creation of private or family time, devoid of work or entrepreneurial engagements, for single female entrepreneurs. This will ensure quality time and energy for the family and for fresh relationship – all of which will impact business positively.Originality/valueRather than enhancing work–family balance, the freedom and flexibility attached to being single and self-employed remain the main source of work–family imbalance for Nigerian single self-employed parents.

Mental illness prevention in post-ACS men: A partcipatory action research

Abstract Background The prevalence of social determinants of health (i.e. rurality, low education and poverty) among men put them at an elevated risk for comorbid cardiac disease and mental illness. While, men are particularly vulnerable to mental illnesses (i.e. depression, anxiety) after an acute coronary syndrome (ACS), they are typically averse to seeking medical care, especially for mental health issues. Targeting interventions to at-risk population groups is a well documented approach. However, little in the literature presents how to prevent mental illness in cardiac men. This study aims to develop, implement and pilot a psychoeducational program tailored for post-ACS men. Methods A mixed method including a scoping review, a qualitative study and a quasi-experimental pilot study. Results In total, 42 articles were retrieved to extract key components of cardiac men-sensitive psychoeducation programs. We led 22 focus groups and 14 semi-structured interviews (119 men in total). The mean age was 51.2 years [45-77]. We integrated the gathered data gathered from the scoping review and the qualitative study to develop a psychoeducational program (3 group sessions). The pilot study involved 48 men who completed the baseline, the 3-month and the 6-month data collections. We observed 80% of compliance. Findings show a significant improvement in PHQ-9, GAD-7, IES-R, CSI and EQ-5D scales. We also observed changes in the CMNI-22, a measure of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors associated with both traditional and non-traditional masculine gender roles. Men appreciated the time flexibility (sessions were scheduled based on participants’ availability) and the responsiveness of the sessions (content was discussed based on their needs and interests). Life partners were invited and 65% attended to all sessions. Conclusions The program was a success and we expect to transform it into a peer-led intervention to improve its delivery in the community and its accessibility for rural and remote areas. Key messages At-risk population-sensitive approaches are key for compliance and effectiveness. Group sessions are effective approaches to improve men’s mental heatlh literacy.

Why don’t “real men” learn languages? Masculinity threat and gender ideology suppress men’s language learning motivation

Large gender disparities in participation still exist across many university subjects and career fields, but few studies have examined factors that account for gender gaps in female-dominated disciplines. We examine one possible cause: threatened masculinity among men who hold traditional gender ideologies. Past research has linked endorsement of traditional gender ideologies to gender-stereotypical occupational choices, and threats to masculinity can lead men to distance themselves from femininity. After confirming that 1,672 undergraduates stereotyped language learning as feminine, we applied a masculinity threat manipulation to investigate 182 men’s disinterest in studying foreign languages, a female-dominated university subject. Men with traditional masculinity ideologies reported less interest in foreign language study and less positive attitudes towards foreign languages following masculinity threat, compared to men whose masculinity was affirmed or who held less traditional masculinity beliefs. Traditional masculine gender roles may lead some men to avoid feminine-typed domains, such as foreign language learning.

Heterosexual Self-Presentation and Other Individual- and Community-Based Correlates of HIV testing among Latino Men Who Have Sex With Men.

From 2010 to 2014, HIV diagnoses among Latino men who have sex with other men (LMSM) have increased by 14%, while diagnoses declined by 11% among white, non-Latino MSM. This health disparity is in part due to exposure to other LMSM with undiagnosed HIV infections. To effectively engage LMSM who are unaware of their serostatus, profiles of men differing in theorized determinants of HIV testing must be considered. In this retrospective study, we examined data from 546 LMSM to investigate whether hypothesized individual- (traditional masculine gender role conformity; sexual identity development status; alcohol and illicit drug use; sexual risk behaviors; perceived HIV susceptibility; and HIV stigma) and community-based (HIV prevention programming, access to health care, social support, neighborhood collective efficacy) factors were associated with differences in HIV testing. Latent profile analysis was used to identify profiles of men, and subsequent analyses examined whether profiles exhibited differential proportions of HIV testing. Four latent profiles were observed. One profile (50.3% tested) differed markedly from all other profiles (5.1 to 11% tested) in HIV testing. Characteristics of participants in this unique profile included reporting lower levels of heterosexual self-presentation, sexual identity uncertainty (and high levels of sexual identity commitment), condom use, HIV stigma, education, and perceived HIV susceptibility than all other profiles. Findings could improve HIV testing rates among LMSM by specifying ways in which public health advertisements/campaigns and community-based testing outreach efforts could be tailored to men most at-risk for transmitting HIV due to unknown serostatus.

Cultivating Conceptions of Masculinity: Television and Perceptions of Masculine Gender Role Norms

The potential of television to both reflect and shape cultural understandings of gender roles has long been the subject of social scientific inquiry. The present study employed survey methodology with 420 emerging adult respondents (18–25 years old) in a national U.S. sample to explore associations between amount of time spent viewing television and views about “ideal” masculine gender roles. The viewing of particular television genres was explored in addition to (and controlling for) overall amount of time spent with the medium, using cultivation theory as the theoretical foundation. Results showed significant statistical associations between viewing sitcoms, police and detective programs, sports, and reality television and scores on the Masculine Roles Norms Inventory–Revised scale. Biological sex of respondent (which very closely approximated gender identity in the sample) moderated a number of these relationships, with positive associations between viewing some genres and endorsement of traditional masculine gender roles stronger for biological male compared to biological female respondents.

Assessment of Conflicts Associated with a Traditional Masculine Gender Role in Spanish College Men and Women

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Gender Role Conflict Scale – Short Form (GRCS-SF; Wester et al. 2012) in a sample of men. In addition, we extend the gender conflict paradigm by evaluating two samples of women with the same instrument. In Study 1, we investigated the internal structure of the instrument in a sample of 281 Spanish undergraduate women using exploratory factor analysis, finding support to the original factor structure. In Study 2, we analyzed its psychometric properties in a college sample of 184 men and 255 women using confirmatory factor analysis, and we explored differences between the two genders through a factor invariance analysis and a comparison of group means. Sufficient equivalence was found, allowing for comparisons among men’s and women’s scores. Overall, masculine gender conflict was significantly associated with greater distress and less general subjective well-being in both men and women. Our research extends the gender role conflict paradigm to the Spanish context and enhances the study of women’s conflicts associated with the adoption of behaviors traditionally attributed to the male gender role.

The Effect of Masculinity on Community Reintegration Following TBI in Military Veterans

The present study examined the effect of level of traditional masculine gender role norms as well as the moderating effect of cognitive flexibility on community reintegration outcomes in a sample of 60 male military veterans who had sustained a traumatic brain injury during deployment. Data were collected through self-report measures and cognitive tests. Results suggested that greater endorsement of traditional masculine gender role beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors was significantly inversely related to the community integration domains of relationships and living skills and not significantly related to work and leisure. The effect of masculinity on healthy living skills was moderated by cognitive flexibility; the protective effect of low masculinity on living skills was only present if the veteran also had high cognitive flexibility skills. Results are discussed in the context of gender role strain, potential limiting aspects of stereotypy on recovery and reintegration, and the importance of cognitive flexibility in the recovery/reintegration process.

Social anxiety, submissiveness, and shame in men and women: a moderated mediation analysis.

Research suggests a positive relationship between social anxiety and shame; however, few studies have examined this relationship or potential mechanisms. Common behaviours of persons with social anxiety disorder (SAD), such as submissive behaviours, may be more consistent with societal expectations of women than men and therefore more likely to be associated with shame in socially anxious men than women. We examined the hypothesis that submissive behaviours would mediate the relationship between social anxiety and shame in men, but not in women, with SAD. Moderated mediation was examined in a cross-sectional dataset. Gender was modeled to moderate the paths from social anxiety to submissive behaviours and from submissive behaviours to shame. We also examined an alternative model of the relationships among these variables and the potential contributory role of depression. Men (n = 48) and women (n = 40) with SAD completed the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, Submissive Behaviour Scale, Internalized Shame Scale, and Beck Depression Inventory. Analyses supported the hypothesized model. The relationship between submissive behaviours and shame was greater in men than women with SAD; the relationship between social anxiety and submissive behaviours was not. Controlling for depression, moderation remained evident although diminished. Results for the comparison model did not support gender moderation. Submissive behaviours mediated the relationship between social anxiety and shame in men, but not women, with SAD. These findings provide preliminary evidence for a model of shame in SAD and may help to further elucidate specific features of SAD that differ between men and women. Although researchers have argued that the display of submissive behaviours might allow the socially anxious individual to limit or prevent attacks on the self, our results suggest that there are greater costs, with regard to feelings of shame, associated with such behaviours for men. In men with SAD, the greater shame associated with submissive behaviours can be understood when considering that socially anxious individuals appear to be particularly concerned with concealing aspects of the self believed to violate perceived societal norms and that traditional masculine gender roles revolve around the theme of dominance. Because the study was conducted in individuals with SAD, it is possible that the restricted range of social anxiety severity may have precluded the observation of gender differences in the relationship between social anxiety and submissive behaviour. Measures were administered in a cross-sectional design, which limits potential inferences of causality.

Gender roles and acculturation: Relationships with cancer screening among Vietnamese American women.

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of demographic variables and the interplay between gender roles and acculturation on breast and cervical cancer screening outcomes among Vietnamese American women. Convenience sampling was used to recruit 100 Vietnamese women from the Richmond, VA, metropolitan area. Women were recruited to participate in a larger cancer screening intervention. All participants completed measures on demographic variables, gender roles, acculturation, and cancer screening variables. Findings indicated that traditional masculine gender roles were associated with increased self-efficacy for breast and cervical cancer screening. Higher levels of acculturation were associated with higher probability of having had a Papanicolaou test. In addition, acculturation moderated the relationship between traditional female gender roles and cancer screening variables. For highly acculturated women, higher levels of feminine gender roles predicted higher probability of having had a previous clinical breast exam and higher levels of self-efficacy for cervical cancer screening, while the opposite was true for lower acculturated women. The findings of this study indicate the important roles that sociodemographic variables, gender roles, and acculturation play in affecting health attitudes and behaviors among Vietnamese women. These findings also help to identify a potentially high-risk subgroup and existing gaps that need to be targeted by preventive interventions.

Abstract B21: The moderating effect of acculturation on gender roles and cancer screening variables among Vietnamese American women.

Abstract Vietnamese women are less likely to undergo cancer screening in comparison to women from other ethnic and minority populations. These health disparities suggest the need to uncover both access/structural barriers as well as cultural barriers to cancer screening for Vietnamese women. The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of demographic variables and the interplay between gender roles and acculturation on breast and cervical cancer screening outcomes among Vietnamese women. A convenience sample of 100 Vietnamese women were recruited from two faith-based institutions for a larger cancer-screening intervention. All participants completed measures on demographic variables, measures of gender roles and acculturation, and cancer screening variables. Results indicated that traditional masculine gender roles were associated with increased self-efficacy for breast and cervical cancer screening. Higher levels of acculturation were associated with higher probability of having had a Pap test. Lastly, acculturation moderated the relationship between traditional female gender roles and cancer screening variables. For highly acculturated women, higher levels of feminine gender roles predicted higher probability of having had a previous CBE and higher levels of self-efficacy for cervical cancer screening, while the opposite was true for lower acculturated women. The findings provide evidence for the interplay between gender and cultural identities and how they may impact Vietnamese women's health outcomes. Programming and intervention strategies need to recognize intra-group differences within ethnic minority populations. Citation Format: Anh Bao Nguyen, Trenette T. Clark, Faye Z. Belgrave. The moderating effect of acculturation on gender roles and cancer screening variables among Vietnamese American women. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2012 Oct 27-30; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(10 Suppl):Abstract nr B21.

The Impact of Gender on Binge Drinking Behavior Among U.S. College Students Attending a Midwestern University: An Analysis of Two Gender Measures

Using a critical feminist framework, the authors examine the relationship between gender role orientation and binge drinking among college students. Two measures of gender identity are employed: The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. The authors test the hypothesis that traditional masculine gender role orientation is predictive of contemporary binge drinking behavior among college students. Gender role orientation, as measured by each scale (independently and combined), has a significant impact on drinking. Masculine gender identity is a significant predictor of binge drinking while controlling for respondent’s sex. Binge drinking and its implications are discussed in the context of alcohol-related crime and victimization.

Assessing gender role of partner-violent men using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2): Comparing abuser types.

This study investigated traditional masculine gender role differences between male partner abuser types using the Masculinity/Femininity subsection scales of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) Structural Summary. We examined differences between four groups of partner-violent men (borderline, antisocial, psychotic features, and nonpathological partner violent) and one group of nonpartner-violent men on five MMPI-2 subscales: Masculinity-Femininity, Gender Role-Feminine, Gender Role-Masculine, Ego Inflation, and Low Self-esteem. Results indicated that the borderline group reported the most consistent traditional feminine gender role orientation of all the groups, whereas the antisocial group reported the most consistent traditional masculine gender role orientation of all the groups. The psychotic features group reported characteristics associated with both traditional masculinity and traditional feminine gender role making it distinct among all the groups. The nonpathological intimately violent group and the nonpartner-violent group reported no extreme scores when compared with the other three groups. The borderline and antisocial groups reported significantly more exposure to family of origin violence and use of more severe forms of partner abuse than the other three partner abuse groups. Treatment implications are addressed.

Not supposed to feel this: Traditional masculinity in psychotherapy with male veterans returning from Afghanistan and Iraq.

Traditional masculine socialization presents challenges in psychotherapy, for example, by decreasing the likelihood of help-seeking and by making emotion-laden content more difficult to address. While this has been established in civilian populations, more intense forms of masculine socialization found in military settings may amplify such issues in male veteran populations. Male veterans returning from and Afghanistan (OEF) and Iraq (OIF) exhibit strong traditional masculine socialization and generally present in a unique manner. It is posited that OEF/OIF male veterans' unique presentation is in large part because of an interaction between high degrees of endorsement of traditional masculine gender role norms, relative youth, recency of distressing events, and recent experience in the social context of the military where traditional masculinity is reinforced. The impact of these variables on the psychotherapeutic process for male OEF/OIF veterans is significant and likely adds to ambivalence about change and increases dropout from psychotherapy. Modifications of traditional psychotherapeutic approaches designed to address traditional masculine gender role norms and their many interactions with other variables are discussed.

Minority stress, masculinity, and social norms predicting gay men's health risk behaviors.

The authors examined the contributions of the minority stress model, traditional masculine gender roles, and perceived social norms in accounting for gay men’s use of alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and risky sexual practices. Three hundred fifteen gay men recruited from listserv communities completed measures assessing internalized homophobia, stigma, antigay physical attack, masculinity, and perceptions of normative health behaviors, along with health risk behaviors of alcohol use, illicit drug use, smoking, and high-risk sexual behaviors. Pearson correlations supported several hypotheses; social norms and masculinity variables were significantly related to health risk behaviors. Four multiple regression analyses indicated that masculinity and perceptions of social norms predicted health risk behaviors. Additionally, a significant interaction was found between minority stress and perceptions of social norms. The clinical implications of the findings, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

An empirical test of a mediation model of the impact of the traditional male gender role on suicidal behavior in men

BackgroundMen die by suicide three to four times more often than women in Western countries. The adverse impact of the traditional male gender role as well as men's reluctance to seek help are possible explanations of this gender gap, but these hypotheses have not been well documented empirically. MethodsThis study compares two groups of men who experienced comparable severely stressful life events during the preceding 12 months: 40 men admitted to hospital emergency following suicide attempts, and 40 men with no history of suicide attempts. Structured interviews were conducted to measure adherence to the traditional male gender role, help seeking behaviour, social support, suicide acceptability and mental health. ResultsANOVAS indicated that attempters are more likely to adhere to the traditional masculine gender role and regression analysis revealed that this relationship persists even when the presence of mental disorders is statistically controlled. Sequential regression analysis support the mediation model and show that the effects of the traditional male gender role on suicidal behavior are mediated through protective and risk factors for suicide, namely mental state, help seeking and social support. ConclusionsThe traditional male gender role appears to increase the risk of suicidal behavior in men by undermining their mental state and by inhibiting the protective factors of help seeking and social support. This study underscores the importance of encouraging men to seek help.

Masculine Gender Roles Associated with Increased Sexual Risk and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration among Young Adult Men

This study sought to assess the association between traditional masculine gender role ideologies and sexual risk and intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration behaviors in young men's heterosexual relationships. Sexually active men age 18-35 years attending an urban community health center in Boston were invited to join a study on men's sexual risk; participants (N=307) completed a brief self-administered survey on sexual risk (unprotected sex, forced unprotected sex, multiple sex partners) and IPV perpetration (physical, sexual and injury from/need for medical services due to IPV) behaviors, as well as demographics. Current analyses included men reporting sex with a main female partner in the past 3 months (n=283). Logistic regression analyses adjusted for demographics were used to assess significant associations between male gender role ideologies and the sexual risk and IPV perpetration behaviors. Participants were predominantly Hispanic (74.9%) and Black (21.9%); 55.5% were not born in the continental U.S.; 65% had been in the relationship for more than 1 year. Men reporting more traditional ideologies were significantly more likely to report unprotected vaginal sex in the past 3 months (OR(adj) = 2.3, 95% CI = 1.2-4.6) and IPV perpetration in the past year (OR(adj) = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.2-3.6). Findings indicate that masculine gender role ideologies are linked with young men's unprotected vaginal sex and IPV perpetration in relationships, suggesting that such ideologies may be a useful point of sexual risk reduction and IPV prevention intervention with this population.