Traditional Agricultural Landscapes Research Articles

Assessment of Alterations in Settlement Patterns of Agricultural Landscape in the Example of Kashubia in Poland

Traditional agricultural landscapes are heavily exposed to change due to their relatively low agricultural productivity. However, they represent cultural values of great importance in maintaining the resilience of the environment and society. Although their cultural potential is important for sustainable development, it is still insufficiently recognized. The article fills this gap by examining old farmstead buildings as a distinguishing element of the agricultural landscape. The study was conducted in Poland in the area of farm settlements in Kashubia. A spatial database and archival maps were used for comparison of the spatial distribution and the number of farmsteads and buildings in 1937 and 2020. The types of settlements in the selected area of research were recorded and classified. The results obtained from the study may support the spatial planning and local management of agricultural areas for the purpose of preserving rural identity and economy.

Threats to the traditional agricultural landscape of southern Yucatan, Mexico: a perspective from the socioecological analysis

Resumen: El paisaje milpa es un territorio con una marcada relación entre las poblaciones mayas y las selvas que se manifiestan en estrategias de manejo de los agroecosistemas locales: la milpa, el huerto familiar y la vegetación secundaria. El paisaje milpa enfrenta múltiples presiones socioambientales que requieren de marcos analíticos transdiciplinarios que permitan su comprensión integral. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar en las interacciones que establecen los componentes humanos y biofísicos. Se utilizó el marco de sistemas socioecológicos, para su operacionalización se revisó información secundaria y se aplicaron 257 encuestas en dos municipios. Los resultados muestran que las relaciones socioecológicas son influenciadas por aspectos de gobernanza y la tenencia de la tierra. El sistema milpa prevalece en los medios de vida, pero coexistiendo con factores que amenazan su estabilidad como la pérdida de la lengua maya, el bajo relevo generacional, la economía de mercado, el alto empleo de agroquímicos y los patrones climáticos. Se concluye que esfuerzos basados en la revalorización de la milpa, la integración participativa de conocimientos y el desarrollo de esquemas de gobernanza adaptativa podrían repercutir positivamente en la sostenibilidad de este paisaje cultural.

Impediments to efficient land reallocation in agriculture: Multi‐agent simulation model of transaction costs and farm retirement

AbstractThis study examines the effect of land exchanges among farm households (FHs) on agricultural sustainability and viability using a multi‐agent simulation model. The initial values of the model are fixed so that the simulation results might reproduce the sequence of land use pattern in Japanese agriculture. The novelty of this study is three‐fold. First, it quantitatively assesses the extent to which transaction costs incurred by lessors and lessees impede the sound development of land rental markets. Second, the simulation model considers inter‐regional heterogeneity in land use patterns and the interactive behavior of FHs regarding land exchanges. Third, the model elucidates the mechanisms by which the equilibrium land rent reaches zero and farmland is abandoned when some FHs retire from farming. Farmland abandonment has become a global phenomenon that has profoundly altered the traditional agricultural landscape in various countries. The present study suggests that the development of land rental markets associated with farm retirement alone does not strengthen agricultural production capacity at the national level. Particularly, if FH retirement progresses to the point where the equilibrium land rent drops to zero, farmland abandonment occurs, which threatens agricultural sustainability and viability. This study concludes that preventing farmland abandonment is a policy issue of the highest priority to ensure global food security and the sustainable development of agriculture.

Aspects of traditional agricultural landscapes: potential alternative development paths for sustainable agriculture—A review

Aspects of traditional agricultural landscapes: potential alternative development paths for sustainable agriculture—A review

Factors affecting the biodiversity of historical landscape elements: detailed analyses from three case studies in Slovakia.

A direct, positive correlation between biodiversity and the traditional agricultural landscape is evident on the national or regional scale. It is mostly conditioned by higher landscape diversity and less intensive farming. We have carried out research on a detailed scale at plot level (productive plots of arable lands, grasslands, vineyards, orchards, and unproductive agrarian landforms (mostly field margins) such as terraced slopes, terraced steps, heaps, mounds, and unconsolidated walls) in three traditional agricultural landscapes: the mountain village Liptovská Teplička, the vineyard landscape in Svätý Jur, and dispersed settlements in a submontane area in Hriňová. We determined the statistical significance of the impact of the selected landscape ecological factors (a set of factors concerning land use and management, agrarian landforms and relief properties) on the distribution of vegetation and selected invertebrate groups (spiders, millipedes, grasshoppers, and crickets). We also explored whether maintaining traditional land use and traditional management helped to enhance the biodiversity. We found that the management regime is the most important factor determining the species composition of vascular plants and all studied animal groups. Also, present land use and agrarian landforms character (type, skeleton content, continuity) are significant factors. Our expectation of a positive relationship between biodiversity and the maintaining traditional land use and traditional management was, in general, not confirmed: such a relation was only found in Svätý Jur for biodiversity of spiders.

Abandonment of Cropland and Seminatural Grassland in a Mountainous Traditional Agricultural Landscape in Japan

The abandonment of traditional agricultural land is a global phenomenon, especially in mountainous areas. Although there are many mountainous villages where traditional agriculture, based on wild-plant mulching systems, is still practiced in Japan, the extent of land use change in these areas has not been quantitatively assessed. Economic theory predicts the systematic allocation of land to its maximum net value in response to distance from residential centres or demand. We tested this theory to determine whether: (1) grassland and cropland abandonment occurs far from residential centres and (2) new grassland becomes established near residential centres because its products (i.e., wild plants) are essential to traditional agriculture. We interviewed farmers from the traditional mountain village of Kosuge, Japan, to examine land use change at a parcel scale over the period 1940–2019. Our predictions were confirmed in that cropland and grassland were abandoned, while regrowth forests and plantations became established thereafter in the more inaccessible areas, in terms of distance from the village centre and slope aspect. Furthermore, new grassland developed near the centre of the village, leading to the ‘advance’ of grassland into the residential centre. Our results indicate that spatiotemporal patterns of land use change in traditional agricultural landscapes can be predicted and used to inform policies designed to sustainably maintain these landscapes and their ecosystem function.

Landscape Metrics and Land-Use Patterns of Energy Crops in the Agricultural Landscape

Energy crops are a new player in the traditional agricultural landscape. The present paper analyses the land uses surrounding and the spatial characteristics of the main energy crops in Sweden (willow, poplar, hybrid aspen and reed canary grass) compared to traditional agricultural crops during the period 2006–2018. Spatial metrics (number of shape characterising points, shape index and rectangularity ratio) are calculated for each field, as well as the nearby land uses at varying distances, at radius: 500 m, 1000 m, 2000 m and 5000 m. A total of 1560 energy crop fields are studied in the 2006 dataset and 3416 fields in the 2018 dataset, which are compared to 58,246 fields with cereal crops in 2006 and 131,354 fields in the 2018 dataset. Results show that, despite being established on previous agricultural land, energy crops present a different spatial profile compared to traditional agricultural crops. Field shapes present less complexity than before, and the overall spatial features become more regular with time in both cases of energy crops and cereals, suggesting an increasing trend in cost-efficient agricultural practices and planning. Important differences concerning land use diversity at different scales are found between plantations versus grasses. In general, willow plantations are located in agriculture-dominated areas (> 70% at 500 m, > 50% at 2000 m), whereas reed canary grass is in forest-dominated landscapes (> 30% at 500 m, > 60% at 2000 m); both contribute to diversifying existing land uses although with varying effects. The results of this study are a basis to assess the impacts of energy crops at landscape level and can translate into applications in energy policy and planning.

Centennial Change and Source–Sink Interaction Process of Traditional Agricultural Landscape: Case from Xin’an Traditional Cherry Cultivation System (1920–2020)

In contrast to modern agriculture, long-standing traditional agricultural practices such as agricultural heritage systems (AHS) are important inspirations for promoting harmonious human–land relations. However, some AHS have been in danger as their traditional agricultural landscapes (TALs) were changed by rapid modernization and urbanization. Thus, how do we figure out the change processes? What conservation measures can be taken? Taking the Xin’an Traditional Cherry Cultivation System in the loess hilly areas of Henan Province as a case, this study introduced the source–sink landscape theory to analyze the structure and process of the TAL during 1920–2020. Results show that, during 1920–1950, the traditional rural landscape (TRL) and the agricultural (natural) ecological landscape (ANEL) in the TAL were relatively balanced because they were source and sink to each other. Since 1985, the source expansion and sink resistance of both TRL and ANEL have been greatly hindered by the sink growth of modern village landscapes (MVL). As the core source landscape, TRL needs salvage protection for inheriting local characteristics by effective measures. TAL conservation should highlight rurality preservation through expanding the protection scope of TRL, endowing the MVL with more indigenous cultural features, etc. All these may contribute to rural vitalization and sustainable development.

Responses of birds to vineyard abandonment in Slovakia

Vineyards are semi-natural, human-modified ecosystems where the extent of natural elements is determined primarily by the type of management and by the abandonment rate. In this study, we analyzed bird assemblages in 40 vineyard plots in six wine-growing regions of Slovakia. We examined bird communities on managed and abandoned vineyards to identify possible patterns. Environmental and spatial predictors of species richness and abundance were analyzed using partial redundancy analysis (pRDA) and a generalized additive model (GAM). Bird communities were influenced by both environmental and spatial factors. As expected, elevation explained most of the variation in bird assemblages. Tree coverage was found to be more important than the vineyard abandonment rate in explaining the observed variability. Only a portion of the variance in the species data reported by pRDA was accounted for by the difference in vineyard abandonment degree. Our results show that the species richness of all birds was positively correlated to vegetation density (captured by NDVI). Herb and shrub cover had less effect on bird species richness than tree cover and the presence of traditional agricultural vineyard landscapes. However, shrub density emerged as a key explanatory factor for the abundance of habitat specialists. Our study shows that, depending on whether the goal is to promote the diversity and abundance of farmland or non-farmland bird species, different conservation biology approaches should be used. Increasing the landscape diversity and avoiding large vineyard abandonment are necessary if we are to stem the decline of valuable farmland species. • The area of managed vineyards in Slovakia continues to decrease. • The species richness of all birds positively correlated to NDVI. • Tree coverage was found to be one of the most important factors in explaining bird species variation. • The shrub density turned out to be a key explanatory factor of habitat specialist abundance. • Bird abundance and species richness increased continuously with the presence of the traditional agricultural landscape.

External Benefits of Irrigation in Mountain Areas: Stakeholder Perceptions and Water Policy Implications

Irrigation contributes to land and ecosystem degradation, especially in intensive farming areas. However, in marginal areas, long-established irrigation systems also supply agroecosystem services. This study aimed to identify and prioritize the external benefits provided by irrigation in extensive grazing farms in an Italian alpine region (Aosta Valley, NW Italy). Three local stakeholder groups (land irrigation consortia members, non-farmer users of the irrigation water service, and non-user citizens) engaged in focus group discussions. The transcriptions were analyzed with an integrated subjective and computer-assisted approach. The main result of the study showed that a convergence of stakeholder opinions led to prioritization of the same four benefits, i.e., hydro-geological and land maintenance, traditional agricultural landscape conservation, biodiversity conservation, and leisure recreational activities provision. Incorporating this information into decision-making processes is relevant in marginal mountain areas, especially in light of the implementation of the water pricing policy laid down in the EU Water Framework Directive. To this end, the economic value of the external benefits should be considered along with the recovery costs for water services. Such information is essential to balance the environmental costs of irrigation and to compare the resource cost of alternative water uses.

Protecting Traditional Agricultural Landscapes by Promoting Industrial Integration Development: Practices from Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (IAHS) Sites in China

Traditional agricultural landscapes (TAL) have a long history. They have received significant attention due to concerns regarding their multiple functions and scarcity. Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (IAHS), designated by the FAO or some countries, are typical TAL that are facing conservation problems. This study takes IAHS as an example and examines the pathway and coordinating mechanism that industrial integration development (IID) uses to promote TAL conservation using available literature reviews and field surveys in IAHS sites. The findings suggest that the main pathways protecting IAHS, depending on IID, include increasing product price by IAHS branding, diversifying farmers’ income by developing special resources, and employing more seasonal surplus laborers by extending local industrial chains. Building a fair and reasonable benefit coordination mechanism among stakeholders in IID is crucial to prompt IAHS conservation. It rests on accurately identifying key stakeholders in IAHS conservation, selecting industrial organization modes that are suitable to an IAHS site, and introducing beneficial distribution mechanisms that can encourage farmers to stay on the farm. The case studies show that diversifying income channels and increasing income with industrial development are the main forces driving farmers to protect IAHS. The IID based on IAHS resources and the win-win benefit distribution principle are key to sustainable conservation.

Protected Natural Spaces, Agrarian Specialization and the Survival of Rural Territories: The Cases of Sierra Nevada (Spain) and Alta Murgia (Italy)

In Europe today, there is increasing interest in the management of protected spaces, not only in an attempt to ensure their conservation but also because of their enormous potential for promoting rural development. These protected spaces are generally designed from the top down, although, in an increasing number of cases, they are being promoted by rural communities themselves. The situation across Europe with regard to protected areas is extraordinarily complex due, among other reasons, to the variety of categories and types of protected areas at the regional level. The objective of this study was to compare two parks: the Sierra Nevada National and Natural Park in Andalusia, Spain, and the Alta Murgia National Park in Apulia, Italy, in order to identify any similarities and/or differences between them. To this end, we performed a dynamic analysis of the evolution of the crops, uses, and livestock species using a specific indicator that can detect local dynamics by comparing areas inside the parks with those in the immediate surrounding areas. The results pointed, in part, to a resurgence of these places. In both cases, a trend was observed towards more extensive farming of certain crops and livestock species that are more profitable and/or more highly regarded as quality products. In other cases, there was a risk of traditional crops and agricultural landscapes being abandoned and lost. Various threats were identified in relation to capital-intensive forms of agriculture, especially involving greenhouse cultivation on the Mediterranean coast in the provinces of Granada and Almeria.

Response of farmland reptiles to agricultural intensification: Collapse of the common adder Vipera berus and the western green lizard Lacerta bilineata in a hedgerow landscape

AbstractAgricultural landscapes cover a large portion of the planet and the intensification of farming is a primary cause of biodiversity loss. Changes in agricultural practices have been particularly marked in Western Europe over the last century. Hedgerow landscapes consist of complex mosaics of pastures, ponds, and hedges connected with forest patches that are favourable for biodiversity. Recently, however, these traditional farming landscapes have been profoundly simplified with a massive reduction in hedgerows. Reptiles are currently facing an important global decline, but the impact of the intensification of agricultural practices on their populations remains understudied. We studied the common European adder Vipera berus and the western green lizard Lacerta bilineata in Western France in a hedgerow landscape undergoing agricultural intensification. We first quantified the habitat changes (density of hedgerows and forest edges) from 1950 to 2015. Second, we documented changes in the distribution of V. berus and L. bilineata in the area between two surveys conducted 18 years apart (survey 1: 1994–1997 and survey 2: 2012–2015). The two species were more likely to be found at sites with dense hedgerows and forest edges at the first survey. We detected marked range contractions in the distributions of both species over 18 years (92% and 74%, respectively, for V. berus and L. bilineata). Population monitoring of the adder with capture‐mark‐recapture at two sites revealed marked declines related to the degradation of hedgerows and closure of the forest patches. Our results underline the importance of traditional agricultural landscapes for biodiversity conservation and the value of squamate reptiles as indicator speciesed in such landscapes.

The Development of the Slovak Agricultural Landscape in a Changing World

The agricultural landscape, which serves as a space for food production and a habitat for all kinds of living organisms, is under constant pressure to use the land in various different ways, causing constant changes in the environment. Various socio-economic, technical or political drivers have caused land use changes, which are linked to a number of socio-economic and environmental problems, e.g., different possible land uses competing with each other, changes of landscape character, increasing anthropisation of the territory and disruption of spatial ecological stability, threatening the environmental quality and causing overexploitation of natural resources. The aim of this paper is to evaluate land use changes in Slovakia since the 18th century, to identify key periods of land-management practices and prevailing drivers, and to specify the socio-economic and environmental impacts of land-use change. We organized a workshop with guided brainstorming to identify individual eras of agricultural development and their impacts. In total, we identified five main periods of agricultural landscape development and specified the characteristic landscape structure. Knowledge of the basic drivers of land use change as well as of its effects on the land is important for development of effective policies and for ensuring effective protection of the values of traditional agricultural landscape.

Biocultural diversity in the traditional landscape of Vallecorsa

In Italy, agricultural intensification and the abandonment of rural areas since the 1960s has led to a transformation of the traditional agricultural landscape, bringing with it a series of environmental and socio-economic issues and problems such as those linked to hydrogeological instability, a reduction in biocultural diversity and migration to urban centres, especially of the younger population. These phenomena have also led to a progressive loss of all the cultural and traditional practices related to these systems, thus contributing to a homogenization of the landscape structure due to abandonment. On the other hand, in the last years, we are witnessing a return to rural and traditional practices with the aim of recovering local cultures, especially those associated to agricultural practices, and to a more sustainable management of the territory. Vallecorsa, a municipality in central Italy, is one of the landscapes inscribed in the Italian National Register of Historical Rural Landscapes and it is still characterized by traditional agricultural practices that provide multiple benefits also in ecological terms, maintaining a specific level of biodiversity, interpreted as part of the biocultural diversity of the area. The aim of the present research is to analyse the structure of the traditional landscape of Vallecorsa and to determine its main characteristics, using landscape as the scale. Through the use of GIS software, by means of photo-interpretation and the use of DTM, the present study analyses the structure of land use, and in particular of terraced surfaces, and the associated data on area size, fragmentation, altitude and slope. The results take into account the diversity of land uses and mosaic patches, as well as terraced surfaces, and their distribution in the territory, relating them to the local biodiversity, in particular that of dry stone walls.

The Value and Development Modes of Vernacular Aesthetic Education of Urban Agricultural Landscape

Aesthetic education not only exists in the classroom, but also in the urban living environment. The development of this environmental aesthetic education function is often accompanied by the development and change of urban landscape. Urban agricultural landscape is an organic part of modern urban landscape. It is different from machines or buildings in general urban production and life. Its local aesthetic value should be fully recognized and excavated. This is mainly reflected in the beauty of traditional agricultural skills, agricultural landscapes, and agricultural activities. At the same time, according to the different ways of interaction between people and the environment (ways of receiving aesthetic education), the development mode of vernacular aesthetic education of urban agricultural landscape can be divided into three: viewing mode, short-time contact, and long-time immersion.

Perception of the Values of the Biocultural Landscape Types of Slovakia by the Population

The perception of the landscape by society is becoming an integral part of many studies in terms of the quality of the living environment, sport and recreation and building and developing social relationships. To evaluate the perception and appreciation of individual landscape types by society, we used an online questionnaire as a form of sociological survey. We used the statistical method of non-metric multidimensional scaling NMDS in R package to determine the variability of responses in relation to respondents. The relationship between demographic factors and landscape perception and landscape type preferences was evaluated. The results of multidimensional scaling show a strong relationship between young men and a preference for recreation over agro-tourism. The middle generation with university education looks more frequently for cultural monuments. University-educated middle-aged men perceive the natural landscape as degraded and endangered, and middle-aged men with secondary education understand the need for the protection of traditional agricultural landscapes. It is important to integrate people’s preferences and needs into the landscape planning and decision-making processes, so that they can contribute to the creation of development plans and other strategic documents.

Agricultural landscape certification as a market-driven tool to reward the provisioning of cultural ecosystem services

Traditional agricultural landscapes provide cultural ecosystem services to human communities. However, the limited profitability of these landscapes often discourages farmers from preserving them. The current research evaluates: (i) whether the market would reward farmers providing a cultural ecosystem service, through an increased willingness to pay (WTP), for a food product with a traditional agricultural landscape certification; and (ii) what happens to the WTP when a food product reports multiple certifications, including the traditional agricultural landscape one. A convenience sample of Italian extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) buyers was involved in a non-hypothetical random nth price auction to determine the WTP for 250 ml EVOO bottles carrying different certification bundles. These bundles were composed of different combinations of three certifications: Organic, Protected Designation of Origin, and a traditional agricultural landscape certification associated with the preservation of terraced olive groves. The findings indicate that the traditional agricultural landscape certification receives a premium price both when EVOO carries it individually or combined with other labels. In the latter case, results show sub-additivity of premium prices. The current research proves that traditional agricultural landscapes are not necessarily bound to market failure; however, costs faced by farmers to maintain them can be rewarded through the market.

The challenges of forest bathing tourism in Indonesia: A case study in Sudaji Village, Bali

Forest bathing or Shinrin-Yoku in Japanese is known as a traditional practice of engaging oneself in nature by using all five senses. This practice provides some preventive health and healing functions, but more examples of good practice are still needed. Concerning the scientific evidence related to the effect of forest bathing in promoting health, this study aims to identify the potential of a traditional agricultural landscape in Sudaji Village as forest-bathing tourism. Landscape Characteristic Assessment was used to analyze the potentials and constraints of various landscape types and to propose a recommendation for bridging towards sustainable rural tourism. Findings show that Sudaji Village has a high potential to promote its forested landscape, agricultural land, and Subak as its socio-ecological system, river, mountain, as well as socio-cultural activities related to agriculture. Furthermore, the use of all human five senses is strongly related to Panca Tan Matra’s philosophical concept that is believed to be the way to communicate with God. This study promotes the potential of forest bathing as a prospective rural development strategy through tourism. In addition, strengthening the role of local communities is crucial to ensure that their natural and cultural resources of great potential be developed as tourist objects and attractions.

Towards the identification and mapping of traditional agricultural landscapes at the national scale: an inventory approach from Italy

ABSTRACT This paper presents an original approach for identifying and mapping agricultural landscapes that are highly representative of different biogeographical and natural settings and likely to be traditional, at the national scale. In the case study of Italy, we used national land cover data of different dates to examine composition of agricultural types and their persistence over time while we employed national stratifications into ecoregions and potential natural vegetation (PNV) to include environmental representativeness. Implementing the procedure returned 120 landscapes, which are distributed across all ecoregions and 51% of the PNV types. Most landscapes match areas with certified and traditional produce (93%) and relevant potential vegetation (86%), whereas 30% overlap acknowledged historical rural landscapes. These results show that our approach highlights the coevolutionary process between traditional crops and the underlying environmental framework and, therefore, provides an ecologically sound coarse filter for selecting and mapping traditional agricultural landscapes.