Bushmeat Trade Research Articles

Caza y comercio de carne de origen silvestre: Estudio de caso en tres comunidades nativas amazónicas de Ucayali, Perú

Poco se sabe cómo operan los mercados de carne de monte en la Amazonía peruana y la influencia que tienen sobre los niveles de extracción con fines alimenticios y comerciales. La investigación analiza cómo el precio de la carne de monte se relaciona con la intensidad de caza en comunidades nativas cercanas a la ciudad de Pucallpa. El estudio confirma que la extracción, comercio y uso de carne de monte en estas comunidades están relacionados con la comercialización del recurso en la ciudad. La cantidad de carne compartida, carne vendida y el precio promedio influyen sobre la cantidad total de carne cazada. Si los precios varían, las cantidades de carne cazada para la venta varían también. Se recomienda promover la autorregulación local, mediante la cual las propias comunidades se organizan asegurando la permanencia de poblaciones saludables de fauna silvestre y beneficiarse sin perjudicar el ecosistema. Se sugiere promover la venta legal de carne de monte de especies manejadas en los mercados formales de Pucallpa para que el comercio pueda estar sujeto a mayor control y permitir que los precios logren un nivel de equilibrio sostenible en la extracción y venta de carne de monte.

Wild animal trade in Cameroon: An insight into species involved and conservation implications in the western Highlands

Abstract Illegal bushmeat trade is a significant driver of the decline in wildlife populations within the tropics. Despite the intense trade of bushmeat in Cameroon, there is dearth or no official statistics on the kind of animals sold in the markets in most parts of Cameroon. To abridge this knowledge gap, an inventory of wild animals sold in local markets was carried out. The animal taxa sold within the markets were identified, and their abundance, class diversity and conservation status according to the IUCN Red List of threatened species and Cameroon wildlife classification were assessed. Semi‐structured questionnaires were randomly administered to 200 traders randomly selected in 16 markets. Multivariate analyses were used to compare the proportions of sold taxa among the markets and the proportions of taxa based on their conservation status. Results were summarized as shown below: (1) 476 individuals of animals were recorded, covering 47 taxa, 41 genera, 33 families, 18 orders and 3 classes from bushmeat vendors. (2) Mammals dominated the trade in all markets (by a mean of 74.3% per market), followed by reptiles (16.1%) and birds (9.5%) in terms of both abundance and diversity. (3) Cane rats (Thryonomyidae) and primates (Cercopithecidae) represented the highest proportions of animal specimens recorded. (4) The diversity of mammals sold was highest in Foumbot, followed by Bangangte, Bafousam and Bangoua as the main local markets, and lowest mammalian diversity was found in Batcham and Baham village markets. (5) The most often traded animal species belonged to the least concern category, followed by vulnerable, near threatened, endangered, and critically endangered. In general, we observed that less protected species by the IUCN Red List and Cameroon wildlife classification were often found in village markets and species with higher conservation value were often sold in city markets. Similarly, the main markets hosted the highest diversity of sold animals, especially mammals. The size of the human settlement together with its location nearby protected area and/or placement of the market by the main road are the main drivers determining numbers and diversity of sold animals, and further attention to government conservation activities should be focused on these markets.

Vendors’ perceptions on the bushmeat trade dynamics across West and central Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons learned on sanitary measures and awareness campaigns

In West and central Africa, the bushmeat trade is a major societal issue with contrasting implications on biodiversity, health and economy. With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, bushmeat trade markets were hit by national bans of various amplitude and poorly apprehended socio-economic consequences. We studied perceptions on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and related governmental measures on the bushmeat trade dynamics through questionnaires addressed to 377 vendors across three West and central African countries. We showed that bushmeat vendors constitute a professional category engaged in profitable, long-term careers. Vendors generally agreed that the pandemic had a negative impact on their activities and the number of clients. However, we observed large discrepancies among national trade dynamics. Côte d’Ivoire was hardly hit by the bushmeat ban and perceived governmental measures as rather negative, whereas Cameroon generally did not report a temporary stop of bushmeat activities and engaged in the stockpiling of pangolin meat (the most trafficked wild mammals in the world), and Benin suffered from a weakened supply chain. Because such differences are rooted in the geography and political agenda of each country, predicting the impact of mitigation measures on the global dynamics of bushmeat markets might be an unrealistic task if national specificities are not considered. West and central African vendors generally did not believe that pangolins were involved in the pandemic, for the reason that people have always been eating pangolins and have never been sick. Given that genomic mechanisms can quickly turn a harmless viral strain into an emerging infectious disease, we recommend that future awareness campaigns through television and social networks –the main media consulted by vendors– also include education on microbial evolution and host shift.

Music production and its role in coalition signaling during foraging contexts in a hunter-gatherer society.

Music is a cultural activity universally present in all human societies. Several hypotheses have been formulated to understand the possible origins of music and the reasons for its emergence. Here, we test two hypotheses: (1) the coalition signaling hypothesis which posits that music could have emerged as a tool to signal cooperative intent and signal strength of alliances and (2) music as a strategy to deter potential predators. In addition, we further explore the link between tactile cues and the propensity of mothers to sing toward infants. For this, we investigated the singing behaviors of hunter-gatherer mothers during daily foraging trips among the Mbendjele BaYaka in the Republic of the Congo. Although singing is a significant component of their daily activities, such as when walking in the forest or collecting food sources, studies on human music production in hunter-gatherer societies are mostly conducted during their ritual ceremonies. In this study, we collected foraging and singing behavioral data of mothers by using focal follows of five BaYaka women during their foraging trips in the forest. In accordance with our predictions for the coalition signaling hypothesis, women were more likely to sing when present in large groups, especially when group members were less familiar. However, predictions of the predation deterrence hypothesis were not supported as the interaction between group size and distance from the village did not have a significant effect on the likelihood of singing. The latter may be due to limited variation in predation risk in the foraging areas, because of the intense bush meat trade, and hence, future studies should include foraging areas with higher densities of wild animals. Lastly, we found that mothers were more likely to sing when they were carrying infants compared to when infants were close, but carried by others, supporting the prediction that touch plays an important prerequisite role in musical interaction between the mother and child. Our study provides important insight into the role of music as a tool in displaying the intent between or within groups to strengthen potentially conflict-free alliances during joint foraging activities.

Environmental, climatic, anthropogenic features of Filoviruses Disease Outbreak: a systematic review

Abstract Background Filoviruses, including Ebola and Marburg viruses, are a threat to global public health due to their transmission and mortality rates. Despite recent advances in forecasting infectious disease limited knowledge of the ecological niche of Filoviruses still hinders research progress. Studying the ecological context of Filoviruses can provide important information for the development of international preparedness and surveillance systems. Methods We conducted a systematic literature review according to the PRISMA 2020 checklist. A search of relevant articles was performed in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Eligible articles were any type of publication, published in English between 2013 and 2023, discussing environmental, climatic and anthropogenic risk factors of Filovirus disease outbreaks. Results A total of 5818 records were screened, and 41 articles were included. Of the 41 studies analyzed, 21 reported an analysis of risk factors related to Ebola Viruses, 8 of Marburg Virus, and 12 analyzed multiple species of Filoviruses. Of the 41 studies analyzed, 16 also developed risk prediction models aimed at stratifying geographic areas. We collected a total of 19 risk factors divided in 4 categories: environmental risk factors (e.g., forest coverage, cropland coverage), climate risk factors (e.g., annual temperature range, seasonal temporal frequency) population risk factors (e.g., human population density, urban population increase), cultural and behavioral risk factors (e.g., bushmeat trade, use of traditional burial practice). The analyzed models primarily use climate and environmental data, with population and cultural factors being considered to a lesser extent. Conclusions The identification of potential predictors of Filovirus disease outbreak is crucial for geographic mapping of high-risk areas. A multidisciplinary Planetary Health approach is needed to advance research and to develop targeted surveillance systems to prevent pandemic outbreaks. Key messages • Environmental and climate factors play a crucial role in filovirus spillover events, but population and cultural factors should also be considered in future research and risk prediction models. • To improve prediction of pandemic outbreaks more research on disease emergence and transmission dynamics, better surveillance of disease in humans and animals, and better access to data are required.

Can a legal game meat trade in Tanzania lead to reduced poaching? Perceptions of stakeholders in the wildlife industry

This paper evaluates stakeholders' perceptions about authorisation of the game meat trade as a solution to poaching in Tanzania. It respectively uses a variant of “Likert’s method of summated ratings” and the “cumulative ordinal regression model” to analyse and compare the opinions of government officials and non-state stakeholders about the performance of the recent regulatory framework governing game meat trade in the country. The results support the assertion that the authorisation of the game meat trade can be one of the boldest conservation tools to mitigate poaching if well-planned and regulated. The results of cumulative ordinal regression model suggest that a unit improvement in the procedures for the application and registration of game meat selling facilities is likely to improve the performance of the regulatory framework in the country by about 42%. This result was statistically significant at a p-value of 0.010, which corresponds to a99% confidence level. We recommend leveraging stakeholders' active engagement and strengthening cooperation between game meat value chain actors and law-enforcement authorities. An innovative participatory model for enforcing game meat sanitary and safety regulations is also recommended to avoid potential health risks to consumers. We underscore the importance of institutional capacity building, awareness creation, and adequate funding in the fight against poaching and bushmeat trade.

Do communities understand the impacts of unlawful bushmeat hunting and trade? Insights from villagers bordering Western Nyerere National Park Tanzania

Do communities understand the impacts of unlawful bushmeat hunting and trade? Insights from villagers bordering Western Nyerere National Park Tanzania

Examining the international bushmeat traffic in Belgium: A threat to conservation and public health

The carriage of bushmeat into the European Union is an infringement of EU Animal Health and Wildlife Trade legislation and poses a threat to biodiversity and public health. To explore the nature and scale of the international bushmeat trade, seized leaking luggage and passengers arriving at Brussels Zaventem airport from sub-Saharan Africa between 2017 and 2018 were searched for “meat” (bushmeat and livestock) by border control authorities. Visual identification, radiography and genetic analysis were applied to derive information from seized specimens, including at least ten CITES-listed species. We estimate that an average of 3.9 t of bushmeat is smuggled monthly through Brussels. The average consignment of meat seized per passenger was 2.8 kg and 4 kg of bushmeat or domestic livestock meat, respectively. The international trafficking of bushmeat is evidently active, yet penalties are rarely enforced; hence we provide suggestions to simplify law enforcement procedures.

ASSESSMENT OF HUNTERS’ HARVESTED ANIMALS IN TWO BUSH MEAT MARKETS

In many localities, bush meat trades remains unmanageable and state of the wild where animals are being hunted can be inferred from frequency of returned animals by hunters to bush meat markets. Information on the state of the wild where animals are been hunted were investigated by collecting information on the population of harvested biomass the hunters returned to two Bush meat markets. On the site market survey was employed for collection of information on harvested animals for twelve weeks. Each animal was properly observed, categorized into age group, sex class and identified to species level. Collected data were subjected to descriptive and Chi-square statistics. A total of 137 harvested animals from eight species were encountered in the two markets and Grasscutter were mostly found in the markets (58). Highest number of harvested biomass were encountered at Omi-Adio Bush meat market (63%). Majority of the animals were of females and adults groups. Significant association was found between the Bush meat markets and the harvested animal species hunters returned there.

Intergroup Cooperation in Shotgun Hunting Among BaYaka Foragers and Yambe Farmers from the Republic of the Congo

Whereas many evolutionary models emphasize within-group cooperation or between-group competition in explaining human large-scale cooperation, recent work highlights a critical role for intergroup cooperation in human adaptation. Here we investigate intergroup cooperation in the domain of shotgun hunting in northern Republic of the Congo. In the Congo Basin broadly, forest foragers maintain relationships with neighboring farmers based on systems of exchange regulated by norms and institutions such as fictive kinship. In this study, we examine how relationships between Yambe farmers and BaYaka foragers support stable intergroup cooperation in the domain of shotgun hunting. In the study village, shotgun hunting is based on a specialization-based exchange wherein Yambe farmers contribute shotguns and access to markets to buy cartridges and sell meat while BaYaka foragers contribute their specialized forest knowledge and skill. To understand how costs and benefits are distributed, we conducted structured interviews with 77 BaYaka hunters and 15 Yambe gun owners and accompanied hunters on nine hunting trips. We found that hunts are organized in a conventional manner within a fictive kinship structure, consistent with the presence of intercultural mechanisms to stabilize cooperation. However, because bushmeat demand is high, gun owners can gain significant cash profit, while compensating hunters only with cigarettes, alcohol, and a traditional hunter’s portion of meat. To level payoffs, hunters strategically hide kills or cartridges from gun owners to feed their own families. Our results illustrate how each group prioritizes different currencies (e.g., cash, meat, family, intergroup relations) and provide insights into how intergroup cooperation is stabilized in this setting. The example of this long-standing intergroup cooperative system is discussed in terms of its contemporary entwinement with logging, the bushmeat trade, and growing market intersection.

Motives, other meat sources and socioeconomic status predict number of consumers with preference for two antelope species served in Enugu-Nigeria

Conservationists are raising concerns about escalating rates of illegal hunting and trading of wildlife resource for food (meat). Hunting of wild animals is associated with complex motivations and drivers that include the high demand for high-value luxury products or a preference for a particular wild animal that consumers consider nutritious over other commercial meat products. Despite the fact that the preference for animal meat from the wild could be a contributory factor hampering most conservation efforts, more studies are still focusing more on habitat destruction rather than bushmeat trade. We investigated the factors influencing preference for antelopes compared with other forms of meat (commercial and non-antelope bushmeat) sold at bushmeat retail centers of Enugu-Nigeria. Data was collected from retailers and a face-to-face interview of respondents at four different centers (selected by cluster probability sampling method) of the three rural areas over a 12-month period. A total of 283 bushbucks (Tragelaphus sylvaticus) and 211 common duikers (Sylvicapra grimmia) were provided by hunters to the retail centers. Data from 1884 semi-structured questionnaires (administered by simple random sampling) indicate most respondents preferred to consume antelope meat because it is readily availability. The duiker was consumed for its morphology and resemblance to goat. In the absence of antelope, the non-antelope bushmeat (guinea fowl) and commercial meat (pork) were consumed due to affordability. Generalized linear mixed model (GLMMs) analyses indicated that respondent age, occupation and motives were significantly related to the number of consumers of antelopes and other sources of meat at the retail centers. The younger consumers of age range 18–35 years consumed antelope and other forms of meat at the retail centers due to health benefits, while businessmen, due to availability. The selection of antelopes by the younger consumers could be an indication of a push to healthier living which may be motivated by status-seeking attitude that could in turn affect future conservation of wildlife resources.

Bushmeat Trade on The Markets Near the Lomako Yokokala Wildlife Reserve (Tshuapa Province) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Bushmeat Trade on The Markets Near the Lomako Yokokala Wildlife Reserve (Tshuapa Province) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Determinants of bushmeat supply sources in rural areas of Côte d’Ivoire

The bushmeat trade provides an income to hunters, transporters, and vendors living in the vicinity of protected areas but remains a challenge to wildlife conservation objectives. The key factors driving the source, choice and use of bushmeat vary among actors in the commercial bushmeat value chain, and insights into these determinants are required to facilitate the development of conservation strategies. Therefore, we aimed to identify the socioeconomic factors that explain the source of supply and quantities of bushmeat available in households and local restaurants. We carried out a survey with 144 rural household heads and 24 restaurant owners in 20 villages in the Western part of Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. We found that bushmeat quantity and species diversity were low in households, originating mainly from subsistence hunting. However, both the amount of bushmeat and the variety of species were high in restaurants and primarily supplied by commercial hunters. Furthermore, the quantity of bushmeat was lower in households with other protein sources and in restaurants in villages that had been the target of more conservation awareness campaigns. We highlight the importance of understanding the determinants of bushmeat supply to regulate the bushmeat trade by applying relevant conservation interventions.

Viruses in sanctuary chimpanzees across Africa.

Infectious disease is a major concern for both wild and captive primate populations. Primate sanctuaries in Africa provide critical protection to thousands of wild-born, orphan primates confiscated from the bushmeat and pet trades. However, uncertainty about the infectious agents these individuals potentially harbor has important implications for their individual care and long-term conservation strategies. We used metagenomic next-generation sequencing to identify viruses in blood samples from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in three sanctuaries in West, Central, and East Africa. Our goal was to evaluate whether viruses of human origin or other "atypical" or unknown viruses might infect these chimpanzees. We identified viruses from eight families: Anelloviridae, Flaviviridae, Genomoviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Parvoviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Picornaviridae, and Rhabdoviridae. The majority (15/26) of viruses identified were members of the family Anelloviridae and represent the genera Alphatorquevirus (torque teno viruses) and Betatorquevirus (torque teno mini viruses), which are common in chimpanzees and apathogenic. Of the remaining 11 viruses, 9 were typical constituents of the chimpanzee virome that have been identified in previous studies and are also thought to be apathogenic. One virus, a novel tibrovirus (Rhabdoviridae: Tibrovirus) is related to Bas-Congo virus, which was originally thought to be a human pathogen but is currently thought to be apathogenic, incidental, and vector-borne. The only virus associated with disease was rhinovirus C (Picornaviridae: Enterovirus) infecting one chimpanzee subsequent to an outbreak of respiratory illness at that sanctuary. Our results suggest that the blood-borne virome of African sanctuary chimpanzees does not differ appreciably from that of their wild counterparts, and that persistent infection with exogenous viruses may be less common than often assumed.

Year-round longitudinal monitoring of a bushmeat market in central-western Côte d’Ivoire: Implication for wildlife conservation

Hunting for bushmeat in the tropics has become a major issue in terms of conservation and human health, especially in western and central Africa. In Côte d’Ivoire, despite a ban on hunting since 1974, the bushmeat trade is widespread. This situation has been exacerbated by the long-term socio-political unrest in Côte d’Ivoire, resulting in the lack of effective protection of protected areas (PAs). Our study was carried out in the central-west Department of Daloa. We conducted standard interviews with the six main traders of the markets to trace the geographical origin of the bushmeat, and quantify the number of animals sold by direct observations twice a week during 52 weeks. We used multiple regression analyses to identify combinations of variables (proportion of animals killed, mean body mass, total biomass, price of carcass, price per body mass) that influenced poaching pressure.A total of 955 carcasses were recorded in the central market of Daloa. This number includes 948 mammals (99 %), six reptiles (0.6 %), and one bird (0.1 %). Rodentia were the most frequently sold taxons by number of individuals (58 %), followed by Artiodactyla (35 %), Carnivora (4 %), and Primates (1 %). Almost half of the game originated from the Department of Zoukougbeu (42 %; N = 404), followed by the Departments of Daloa (29 %; N = 275) and Séguéla (13 %; N = 123). Over 75 % of all the carcasses appearing in the market consisted of greater cane rats and bushbuck. In contrast, over 68 % of the total biomass (23028.75 kg) entering the market was supplied by Bushbuck and Common warthog. Game diversity by catchment area was the highest in Séguéla and Grégbeu and the lowest in Guezon and Maminigui. Our data indicated that hunting was unequally distributed throughout the central-western region of Côte d’Ivoire or markets are unequally provisioned by hunters. Human population density of the catchment areas affected the quantity and the quality of bushmeat observed at the urban market. Increasing hunting pressure in the Departments of Zoukougbeu proximate to the Haut Sassandra forest reserve indicates that the local authority in charge of the surveillance of this reserve has to reinforce its protection to avoid further faunal depletion. Because most of the ungulates and rodents found on the market occur at high density in disturbed habitats, their relative frequencies in the carcasses provisioning the market could be used as indicators of site over-exploitation.

The bushmeat trade in northern Ghana: market dynamics, drivers of trade and implications for conservation

AbstractData on species trade profiles and volumes of wild animals on sale in local markets can provide useful insights into the bushmeat trade, enabling identification of priorities for management and conservation planning. We monitored bushmeat traded in three markets (Sandema, Chiana and Fumbisi) in the Upper East Region of Ghana during October 2018–October 2019. More than 80% of carcasses sold were amphibians (frogs). Species composition and volumes of bushmeat traded varied significantly across markets. Bushmeat sales were highest during the dry season (75% of total biomass traded). The bulk (60% of total biomass) traded in the local markets was transported long distances for resale in major urban markets in southern Ghana. Large-bodied species were comparatively low in number and sold almost exclusively for resale in southern markets. This study highlights the importance of frog meat as an affordable protein source for consumers and as income for traders in an economically deprived region. Seasonal fluctuations of bushmeat sales demonstrated the importance of bushmeat as part of a diversified livelihood strategy for hunters and traders. Furthermore, this study underscores the significant role that long-distance trade networks play as key drivers of the bushmeat trade in these parts of northern Ghana, and highlights the risks posed by current extraction levels for species conservation in this understudied region. Our recommendations include investigating the potential of sustainable amphibian production, improving protection of particular vulnerable species and of the protected areas in the region and exploring alternative livelihoods during the peak hunting season.

A Jurisdictional Approach to Indonesia’s Wildlife Trade

Indonesia is one of the countries that lack a sense of concern for animals due to the rampant wildlife trade that occurs in the country. Bushmeat is not consumable since it is not regulated inside the Indonesian Law Number 18 of 2012 concerning food (hereinafter abbreviated as Law on Consumables). Various traded wild animals are believed by several individuals to have contained many good properties when consumed and can cure various diseases. But Bushmeat is a source of diseases such as Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs) and Coronavirus Disease (Covid-19) while also endangering the preservation of biodiversity. This bushmeat trade also sells the meat of protected endangered animals, which are proven to have violated Law Number 5 of 1990 concerning Conservation of Biological Natural Resources Article and its Ecosystem (hereinafter abbreviated as Law on Conservation of Biological Natural Resources Article and its Ecosystem), as well as other laws. The research method applied in this research would be normative juridical, which uses positive Law as a source of existing Law. The goal of this research is to understand the regulations related to Bushmeat trading based on the Law and the application towards bushmeat dealers established in Indonesia's Law Number 41 of 2014 concerning Amendments to Law Number 18 of 2009 concerning Animal Husbandry and Health (hereinafter abbreviated as Law on Livestock and Animal Health), Law on Consumables, Law on Conservation of Biological Natural Resources Article and its Ecosystem, Government Regulation Number 7 of 1999 concerning Preservation of Plant and Animal Species, Law Number 8 of 1999 concerning Consumer Protection (hereinafter abbreviated as Law on Consumer Protection) and the Criminal Code.

Status and ecology of forest ungulates in the Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon

Abstract Ungulates have undergone major declines in Central and West African forests as a result of bushmeat trade and habitat loss. Monitoring forest ungulate status is a critical conservation need. We undertook a systematic camera-trap survey of the 5260 km2 Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon’s largest protected area. We deployed cameras at 305 sites in eight grids across the reserve over 28,277 camera-trap days. We recorded 30,601 independent detections of 12 species of forest ungulate. The blue and Peters’ duikers were the most abundant, accounting for 82% of all ungulate detections, both with occupancy >85% in all survey grids. The black-fronted duiker was relatively widespread but rare. The white-bellied duiker and water chevrotain were found mostly in the southern part of the reserve. There were very few detections of sitatunga, forest buffalo and bongo. Our results suggest ecological partitioning among the more abundant duikers based on activity pattern and body size. The reserve faces many pressures including illegal subsistence and commercial hunting. Community surveillance and partnerships, with improved law enforcement are among measures being implemented by the Cameroon government to enhance security and ensure retention of the reserve’s World Heritage status.

Monkeypox: we cannot afford to ignore yet another warning

Abstract An unintended consequence of smallpox eradication and ending the smallpox vaccination campaign has been to render the global human population immunologically naïve to orthopoxvirus infection for the first time in history. This has occurred at a time when the majority of people worldwide live in high population densities in cities and when connectivity across the world has never been higher, both of which facilitate the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. It is not surprising, therefore, that novel zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections have been increasing in recent years, or that an international outbreak of human monkeypox disease has occurred. A One Health approach, including consideration of land-use change and the bushmeat and exotic pet trades, is required to prevent opportunities for the emergence of monkeypox, or diseases cause by other orthopoxviruses, and for a rapid and effective response to any outbreaks in order to limit their spread. One Health Impact Statement The current global outbreak of monkeypox is yet another warning for the adoption of a preventative, One Health, approach to minimise the risk of future emergence of known and unknown zoonotic pathogens. This includes the need to consider the roles, and to mitigate the impacts, of land-use change and the bushmeat and exotic pet trades in order to prevent opportunities for the emergence of monkeypox virus, or other orthopoxviruses, and for a rapid and effective response to any outbreaks in order to limit their spread. As of 9 September 2022, there have been 56,098 confirmed cases of monkeypox in people in 96 countries since an initial case was confirmed in the UK on 7 May (CDC, 2022). However, this does not include infections in Central and West Africa where the infection is endemic and where human cases of the disease have been escalating dramatically in recent years following smallpox eradication ( Tasamba, 2022 ). Monkeypox virus (MPV), the causative agent of monkeypox, is an orthopoxvirus (OPV) closely related to smallpox virus. Following a global vaccination campaign, the World Health Assembly confirmed the eradication of smallpox in 1980, after which vaccination against this disease was ended. During the following 40 years, therefore, and for the first time in history, the global human population has become immunologically naïve to OPVs ( Dye and Kraemer, 2022 ). This has created a gaping ecological niche that is open to exploitation by a new OPV. It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that zoonotic infections with at least two previously unknown OPVs have emerged in recent years: Akhmeta pox and Alaska pox ( Vora et al ., 2015 ; Springer et al ., 2017 ). Monkeypox virus is also a zoonotic OPV and, although recognized for many years as a public health threat in waiting subsequent to the decline of smallpox vaccination ( Heymann et al ., 1998 ), monkeypox has remained a neglected disease ( Di Giulio and Eckburg, 2004 ; Parker et al ., 2007 ), which is only now receiving attention following its spread to high-income countries.

DNA-typing improves illegal wildlife trade surveys: Tracing the Cameroonian bushmeat trade

Although the bushmeat trade is a significant component of the Anthropocene crisis in the tropics, the reliability of species-level identification is generally lacking from bushmeat surveys. We conducted a comprehensive study of 23 bushmeat markets in Cameroon and one seizure from a French airport using a multi-gene DNA-typing approach and a dedicated species-assignment pipeline (DNABUSHMEAT). We identified 39 species-level taxa from 318 collected bushmeat items, including nine Cetartiodactyla, six Carnivora, three Pholidota, seven Rodentia, 12 Primates, one Squamata and one Crocodilia. DNA-typing allowed detecting three species previously unreported from the Cameroonian trade and clarifying the status of taxa subject to cryptic diversity (rodents) and shallow diagnostic characters (small carnivores, antelopes and guenons). Only 7% of the samples could not be assigned to the species-level, including two guenons and one snake, because of fluctuant taxonomy and weak representation in nucleotide databases. Almost half (43%) of the morphological identifications were corrected or refined by our DNA-typing approach. Generalized linear models showed that smoked specimens and primates were significantly suffering from inaccurate species identification. We also observed that customs (Paris) and market-recruited assistants (Cameroon) peaked at very high rates of inaccurate species identifications (87 and 100%, respectively), calling for cautiousness when third parties are involved in bushmeat surveys. Overall, >50% of the bushmeat species traded in Cameroon were nationally protected. Because accurate species identification is a central component of conservation strategies, we posit that our DNA-typing approach is a valuable asset for improving the traceability of the domestic and international bushmeat trade.