TQM Initiatives Research Articles

Total Quality Management and Employee Performance among Motorcycle Dealers: Basis for TQM Initiatives

Total Quality Management is an organizational technique for continuous improvement that would improve and augment employee performance. The study explores the relationship between total quality management and employee performance. This paper helps fill a gap in the literature by measuring total quality management implementation and employee performance among motorcycle dealers. The study's dependent variable is employee performance with two sub-variables: task performance and contextual performance. While the independent variable is total quality management using ISO 9001:2015 standards, namely, customer focus, leadership, engagement of people, process approach, evidence-based decision making, continual improvement, and relationship management. The study utilized quantitative and descriptive research design. The study took 145 participants using a simple random sampling method. The study results have shown that the seven TQM elements significantly influence employee performance measures. The findings imply that total quality management plays a vital role in the performance and success of an organization. Hence, motorcycle dealers should continue implementing total quality management with all variables to improve performance. Motorcycle dealers should improve employees' involvement, commitment, and awareness of TQM, enhance the organizational structure, and provide resources to overcome the barriers that prevent effective implementation of TQM. Keywords: Total Quality Management, Employee Performance, Motorcycle Dealers

Synergistic effect of TQM-SCM initiatives in organizational performance: evidence from the service (logistics) sector

PurposeThis study aims to explore the synergetic effects of total quality management and supply chain management (TQM–SCM) initiatives and their effects on organizational performance (OP). This research has been conducted in Pakistan’s logistics sector. The research reveals the synergistic effect of TQM and SCM initiatives and their effects on OP.Design/methodology/approachThe constructs of the TQM and SCM were chosen after reviewing the literature that was critical for the logistics sector. The synergetic effect of TQM–SCM on OP has been evaluated. The mediating, direct and indirect effects were also evaluated in different models independently. Structural equation modelling was applied to drive the results via using AMOS.FindingsIt was observed during the analysis that both the TQM and SCM have a significant effect on OP. Both TQM initiatives have directly correlated to the improvement in SCM, and both have a positive effect on an organization. This research study has aided logistics firms that are focusing on TQM and SCM planning and implementation. The results can give management a better and more in-depth knowledge of the TQM initiatives and OP.Research limitations/implicationsThe data was collected through email and personal visits from different organizations. The data was collected through an adopted questionnaire. It is found in the study that many people at the managerial level have limited knowledge regarding SCM and TQM. The results may vary if the knowledge of the employees is improved.Practical implicationsThe current study presents an upscale addition by examining the function of SCM and TQM linkage in OP as well as their relationship. The evaluated model serves as a guideline for firms looking to expand and achieve maximal OP.Social implicationsText.Originality/valueThe evaluated model is developed in this study that serves as a guideline for firms looking to expand a new method to reach maximum OP.

Improving organisational performance through TQM in an Indian manufacturing industry: an empirical study

The aim of this paper is to signify the TQM implementation methodology adopted by a leading tractors manufacturing industry namely XYZ Ltd. (name changed) of Punjab, India; examine the issues faced by the company prior to TQM; and investigate the effectiveness of its implementation. The industry started implementing TQM in 2008 with a purpose to counter business challenges for the realisation of its vision, i.e., 'To be within top two brands in India'. Noteworthy improvement in terms of quality, cost and delivery has taken place as a result of implementing TQM initiatives in the company. The TQM journey of the company remained highly successful, and as a result its market share increased from 9.1% to 12.6%, tractor manufacturing volume increased by 25.5%, sales volume enhanced from 35,248 to 67,483 tractors per annum, profit growth became three times within four years and the customer satisfaction increased by 39.5%.

TQM practices and its performance effects – an integrated model

PurposeTotal quality management practices have been embraced by many quality-oriented firms around the world in order to improve performance in terms of quality, productivity, customer satisfaction and profitability. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the direct and indirect effects of TQM practices on various performance indicators specifically in the Indian manufacturing context. This paper focuses on developing an integrated model encompassing significant structural relations showing the linkage between TQM practices and multiple performance indicators – quality performance, customer satisfaction level, operating performance, employee performance, innovation performance, society results and financial performance. Apart from analyzing the direct relationship between constructs, the main purpose of this work is also to identify all the possible mediation effects of performance indicators on others using structural equation modeling (SEM).Design/methodology/approachAn in-depth literature review was conducted to identify the key practices for the successful implementation of TQM in an organization as well as to explore TQM-performance effects. As a result, four TQM practices and seven performance indicators were identified. The data were collected from 260 Indian manufacturing organizations. After confirming the reliability and validity using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the proposed hypotheses were tested using SEM.FindingsThrough testing the proposed hypothesized structural model, the direct and indirect effects of TQM practices have been examined. Moreover, this work developed an integrated model showing the interrelationships between TQM practices and performance indicators identified. The findings gave an insight that the effective implementation of TQM practices assists in reaping benefits in the every facet of an organization. By implementing these practices effectively, managers can expect to realize improvement in all these performance areas.Research limitations/implicationsThis study is subject to certain limitations. Even if all variables were found to be reliable, valid and satisfactory non-response bias test results, the remote possibility of bias in the data might not be fully ruled out. There is a probability of occurrence of common method variance and common method bias, since the data for both dependent and independent variables were collected from the same respondents in the organization. Additionally data on performance indicators were based on the respondent’s assessment and awareness only. The mediating relationship between individual TQM practice and performance indicators can be investigated in future studies. Since society results are a necessity in future, the direct and indirect practices focusing toward this can be explored. In addition, there is a research scope to identify the moderating effect of contextual factors such as degree of TQM implementation, scope of operation and type of organization.Practical implicationsThe findings of the research offer some potentially valuable insights into the relevance of TQM practices and its strong linkage on various performance indicators, through which the overall organization performance can be enhanced. By implementing these practices effectively, managers can expect to realize improvement in all these performance areas. Hence, the managers can adopt this approach to assess their organization’s level in the quality path and as a guideline in implementing TQM practices. They can also measure the impacts of TQM practices on multiple performance measures in order to evaluate their TQM initiatives. Especially the deployment of quality culture is a requisite to excel in the every facet of performance. The positive relationship between TQM practices and various performance indicators can motivate the managers to allocate resources in time, effort and capital for TQM implementation in pursuing quality, leading to customer retention and competitiveness. The findings of the study strongly suggest the need for the holistic implementation of TQM practices for the survival of the organization.Originality/valueWhile there is a considerable volume of researches carried out to investigate the linkage between TQM and organization’s performance across the globe, still little is evidenced regarding the mediating effect of performance indicators on others, especially in the Indian manufacturing context. The present paper attempts to extend and add knowledge to this line of research and to bridge the gap and provide sufficient empirical evidence specifically in the Indian scenario. Thereby helps the organization to follow a guideline to improve the overall performance.

Total quality and socially responsible management (TQSR-M)

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to develop an integrated conceptual framework of total quality management and corporate social responsibility.Design/methodology/approachThis study is based on stakeholder theory, which stresses the satisfaction of all stakeholders. Therefore, companies generate profit for their shareholders by producing high quality products and services to emphasize human dignity and to satisfy their employees without harming people and the natural environment.FindingsThe results of the study suggest an integrated conceptual framework by identifying the critical factors that are parallel between quality management and social responsibility to satisfy key stakeholders’ demands.Research limitations/implicationsThis study is conceptual in nature, and empirical research is needed to identify the critical factors that promote the application of TQM and CSR practices, which are limited.Practical implicationsThe proposed conceptual framework may facilitate the management of an organization to evaluate its quality and social programs and will highlight problem areas that can be improved. This study contributes to the literature on TQM and CSR and captures the important factors for effective TQM and CSR practices. The conceptual framework will help researchers and firms to recognize TQM and CSR initiatives and establish a strengthened relationship between corporate strategy and social conditions.Originality/valuePrevious studies have been conducted separately in the areas of TQM and CSR, and there are still not sufficient number of studies to simultaneously integrate quality management and social responsibility. Thus, there is a critical research gap, which raises the question of how the integration of TQM and CSR practices can be developed. There is a need to recognize the mechanism through which the specific element of CSR would be included as an implicit and/or explicit aspect or whether it should be addressed along with TQM. Therefore, this study proposes an integrated conceptual framework that can be applied to the broader issues of responsibility rather than just quality.

Assessing the business performance measurements for transfusion of TQM and TPM initiatives in the Indian manufacturing industry

Traditionally, quality and maintenance functions in industries were viewed as just a support function of a business. Improving quality of product being produced was not even cared and managing equipment performance was not a top priority. The inadequacies of the quality as well as maintenance practices in the past have adversely affected organisational competitiveness. The present research is aimed at developing an insight into the prevalent quality maintenance practices adopted in the contemporary Indian manufacturing industry. As the leading Indian manufacturing organisations have taken proactive initiatives to effectively improve the manufacturing by transfusing various lean manufacturing philosophies like TQM, TPM, 5S, Six Sigma, etc. for realising enhanced manufacturing performance. The study reveals that Indian entrepreneurs have been reasonably successful in improving the business performances in the organisations by implementing combination of TQM and TPM, as TQM support to TPM is much effective and this improvement initiative have significantly contributed towards enhancing the overall manufacturing performance.

Assessing the awareness of total quality management in Indian service industries

PurposeTotal quality management (TQM) has begun to influence national business systems and is widely seen as a “revolution” in management. TQM initiatives continuously search the needs of the customers and incorporate them in the organization on an ongoing basis. For this reason, the majority of research study has been undertaken in this field and is still going on across the world, especially in the developing countries, which are lagging behind in the implementation of TQM. Considering the above reasons, the purpose of this paper is to assess the awareness of TQM program in the Indian service industries.Design/methodology/approachBy means of a literature review and empirical data collected using a self‐administered instrument distributed to select Indian service companies, the awareness of TQM was investigated. A total of 172 useable survey instruments were included for the final analysis. This study sample consisted of a group of selected Indian service companies from healthcare, information and communication technology (ICT), banking, and hospitality industries. The data were analyzed using graphical representation approach, descriptive statistical analysis, and correlation analysis.FindingsThe analysis revealed the significance and usage of TQM in Indian service industries. The results also suggested that the Indian service industries are well aware of the TQM program, though more efforts need to be focused on implementing it properly, use of TQM models and frameworks, and continuously improving the ongoing TQM practices.Research limitations/implicationsIndian service managers show a stronger familiarity with TQM concepts and practices and they believe that TQM is a way of guaranteeing high quality products and services. Therefore, service companies should invest in TQM, as this could help them to improve competitiveness in the marketplace. Further, the Indian service managers and practitioners must be more concerned about the maintenance of standards and take a more dynamic approach towards TQM, thus preparing their company more effective for future challenges.Practical implicationsThe result provided in this paper will help in understanding the TQM awareness in the Indian service sector as a whole and suggest some additional improvements in the knowledge of TQM to the managers of Indian service industries which could enhance the level of TQM implementation and hence, business performance.Originality/valueThe assessment of TQM awareness in Indian service industries, along with the understanding of the concept of TQM, has been expanded in the literature on TQM in the Indian service industry.

The Impact Of Organizational Change, Structure And Leadership On Employee Turnover: A Case Study

Purpose - To provide the management team at BTSA Ltd with a practical guideline in managing organizational change through a designated lead change agent.Design/Methodology/approach - This guideline was developed by analyzing various organizational behaviour variables which included organizational structure, leadership and organizational culture. The objective of the case study is to provide a pragmatic approach to dealing with transformational change, particularly the role and responsibility of leadership.Findings This case identifies a distinct correlation between each above stated variables and productivity/citizenship factors among employees. As a result of the takeover by an international conglomerate, BTSA Ltd was facing major changes and sustained a high level of employee turnover within the company, including the abrupt departure of their lead change agent. This resulted in a sharp decrease in TQM initiatives and major slowdown in R&D projects. The key findings have determined the core elements which explained the turnover issue and the impact of organizational change (for a small Canadian based firm acquired by a US conglomerate).Originality/value - This case study is practical for mid-sized firms which are currently involved or will shortly be facing foreign control through a recent merger or acquisition. It provides management (of the acquired firm) with insight on the potential pitfalls involved in transformational changes and tools to mitigate a situation which can potentially lead to its downfall.

Sustaining TQM: A Synthesis of Literature and Proposed Research Framework

As the new millennium progresses, TQM is expected to mature into a sustainability phase to support a universal business strategy. Its critical success factors will vary in order to accommodate changes in the environment where the firms operate. Despite the fact that TQM initiatives have been recognised by many organisations as capable of transforming the quality culture and producing competitiveness, new initiatives or their improved versions are being suggested to retain TQM vigour and its sustainability. This has called for a continuous discourse and the development of a framework for sustaining TQM, which is the object of this paper. The paper first traces the development of the concept of sustainability, leading to the conception of sustainable TQM. A framework of proposed research is presented drawing from the literature on quality orientation, performance measurement, change management, and related organisational theories. Strategies for effectively sustaining TQM implementation are highlighted. A set of theoretical enablers and inhibitors for sustaining TQM are discussed, and a research model is proposed. From the model, various scenarios are constructed, and research propositions are deduced. Finally, a methodology for an empirical stage of research is offered.

Breaking through barriers to TQM effectiveness: Lack of commitment of upper-level management

This paper examines the importance of senior management commitment to successful implementation of TQM initiatives. Subsumed under the general heading of senior management commitment will be the issues of employee commitment and, in consequence, the TQM success. The interrelationship between CEO commitment, employee commitment and effectiveness of TQM programmes is usually a very close and linear one, not least because, if a TQM organization wishes to improve and achieve success it has no choice but to be committed fully from top to shop floor. As commitment of senior management and employees are not substitutable, it is difficult to study either issue in isolation. The paper opens with an attempt to offer a clear explanation of TQM practices, and goes on from this to outline the importance of a highly-committed CEO and his or her senior management team as a test of whether an organization considers TQM initiatives as a managerial panacea towards competitive advantage or just another management fad. The implications of management commitment for employee motivation and wider aspects of TQM success are discussed. The paper then examines the evidence that ‘mobility of management’ – Deming's fourth deadly disease – has a negative effect at both aggregate and company levels, and instances the ways in which world-class organizations utilize senior management commitment to act as a spur to the adoption and successful implementation of TQM programmes. The changes in CEOs or other top executives that have recently taken place are surveyed, and it is argued that the evidence indicates the centrality of ‘mobility of senior management’ to TQM failure. Following on from this, some potential problem areas in terms of current causes of low commitment of senior management and why CEO commitment dropped off so dramatically, are discussed, followed by a number of general organizational factors adduced to explain these barriers to TQM success. The paper concludes with some brief remarks about prospects for the highly-committed senior management of TQM organizations, and the need for further empirical research on the factors that impedes transition to a stable total quality (TQ) environment.

Leadership for excellence in the Portuguese municipalities: Critical success factors, measurements and improvement strategies

There is a large consensus in the literature that leadership is the most critical aspect for successful implementation of TQM (Dale et al. , 1997; Deming, 1986; Oakland, 1999; Senge, 1990; Zairi, 1995, 1999) and, ultimately, to achieve organizational excellence. Therefore, leadership is the prime aspect of Kanji's Business Excellence Model (KBEM) (Kanji, 1998). Given the criticality of leadership, a new model for measuring leadership excellence was developed (Kanji & Sá, 2001), based on an extensive literature review. This model, which expands the concept of leadership embedded in KBEM, was empirically tested and validated in the Portuguese municipalities. A brief analysis of key leadership responsibilities in implementing TQM initiatives (Dale et al. , 1997; Darling, 1999; Dering, 1998; Prabhu & Robson, 2000a, 2000b; Senge, 1990; Zairi, 1999) points to the need to develop new leadership profiles in the public sector (Hartley & Allison, 2000; Korac-Kakabadse & Korac-Kakabadse, 1998; Morgan & Murgatroyd, 1994; Rago, 1996; Skelcher, 1992) and in the local government in particular (Gabris et al. , 2000; Gaster, 1996; Jones, 1999; West et al. , 1993). The leadership model developed incorporates the critical success factors thus identified. Based on these constructs, measurement scales were created and the resulting questionnaire administered to the Portuguese municipalities. Eighty-five municipalities participated in the study. The paper reports the main results of this application, which broadly confirm the structure of proposed model and demonstrate that the leadership roles and competencies identified have, in fact, a positive impact on leadership excellence. From the findings, possible improvement strategies are discussed.

How Do We Know a "Continuous Planning" Academic Program When We See One?

Introduction In the early 1990s, following numerous reports criticizing colleges and universities for inadequate responsiveness, a number of higher education leaders began advocating quality (TQM) principles borrowed from business (Chaffee & Sherr, 1992; Change, 1993; Seymour, 1993; Sherr & Teeter, 1991). Feeling squeezed between declining public opinion on one side, and cuts in public funding on the other, they hoped TQM might resolve the difficult question: How can higher education continue to meet new societal demands without the ability to expand? Throughout the postwar period, public funding for higher education had increased to cover the costs of rising enrollments and new branches of learning. More often than not, dissatisfaction with the status quo had been remedied by adding new options rather than by making difficult choices among competing priorities. By the late 1980s, however, most college administrators and national leaders had become convinced that retrenchment, which had begun with the oil crisis of the early 1970s, was a permanent condition, not merely a short-term aberration. This meant that emergency belt-tightening measures, no matter how necessary or painful, would not be sufficient over time because they failed to address the more fundamental question of how to survive, let alone thrive, in a zero-growth economy. TQM appeared promising as a strategy for improving effectiveness under steady state conditions because it focused on setting very clear priorities for investing resources and reducing waste. It advocated organizing personnel into teams committed to a mission that focused on the needs and preferences of external stakeholders, and it called on the teams to base their decisions on objective data rather than on subjective assumptions. Many academic personnel, however, responded negatively to TQM. Among other reasons, they were put off by the application of business language to education, such as calling students customers, and graduates products. They believed that quality was already their goal and that more management was not needed to achieve higher levels of excellence. Furthermore, many were suspicious that in practice TQM initiatives would emphasize increased productivity and cost cutting rather than quality. Nonetheless, a number of higher education leaders saw benefits to TQM if it could be adapted for the higher education environment. Some called this adapted approach quality (or (CQI) (Marchese, 1991, 1992). CQI encouraged colleges and universities to place a greater emphasis on constituent input and satisfaction, in essence, defining excellence in more service-oriented terms than it had been defined previously. The words continuous and improvement (or initiative) fit better with academic sensibilities and expectations than did the heavy-handed sound of total and management. During a burst of CQI initiatives on various campuses in the mid1990s, my colleagues and I began to notice that few were drawing parallels between the need to continuously improve various administrative systems and the need to continuously reshape the curriculum to meet changing conditions and interests. It seemed to us there could be no function within the academy that called for more vigilance and responsiveness than the college curriculum. Research by Stark and colleagues (1988) had found that the majority of faculty members constantly adjusted their individual courses to keep them up-to-date and to improve their effectiveness, but we wondered whether we could find examples of similar ongoing adaptation at the program level. That is, could we find models of department-level curriculum planning that engaged groups of faculty members in frequent reappraisal of the content, processes, resources, and outcomes of their program curricula? Previous interview studies suggested that faculty members were not accustomed to thinking about curriculum planning as a program level activity and often reverted to describing their own individual course planning when asked to discuss program planning in their departments (Stark et al. …

TQM enablers and business sustainability

The extent to which an organisation is successful can be influenced by a number of its strategies and business initiatives. This success can be measured internally, using traditional measures such as profitability, return on net assets and cash flow. Equally, this success can also be measured in terms of external measures such as growth, the competition and the impact of a changing business environment. This paper attempts to assess the association between the extent to which TQM initiatives have been successfully implemented and the changes in performance measures both internal and external. This has been done by analysing benchmarking data collected from nearly 450 service organisations from the North East of England. The survey results suggest that the TQM enablers have the greatest impact upon operational performance and then business performance, but only limited impact on external measures of sustainability such as business growth, competitive advantage and change management.

Focusing on key elements of TQM – evaluation for sustainability

Without sustainability TQM initiatives are usually doomed to fail. The essence of TQM is continuity over time and integration of quality management initiatives into daily organizational operations. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to define what are the key priority elements of TQM on which companies need to focus and to present an evaluation tool based on these key elements that can be used to assess the extent of progress of TQM. The tool encompasses ISO 9000 as well as TQM elements, bearing in mind that they should complement rather than conflict with each other. The research context is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, a less developed country where the issue of sustainability is even more crucial than in fully industrialised countries.

Total quality muddle?

Companies implement TQM initiatives because they seem to be a “fast track” to improved performance and profitability. TQM is also customer driven because as more and more firms receive accreditation they prefer to deal only with similarly accredited companies. However, the TQM failure rate in manufacturing remains high and raises questions about the whole TQM rationale and culture. What is the underlying ethos of TQM and why does its implementation so often fail?

TQM – a holistic view

Notes that while total quality management has elements in behavioural and culture change which look to empowerment, the reality has been a selective, if not cynical, use of tools and language. Points out that successful TQM initiatives abound and that often they involve a method of redistributing power within organisations which facilitates a change of perception of roles and values. Argues that auditing the process relies on clear objective measurement that will keep organisations “honest” and that this also helps keep the direction of efforts visible and on target.

TQM Implementation in State Departments of Transportation: View from the Firing Line

This paper discusses the results of a 1994–95 survey of 146 state departments of transportation mid-level managers from 26 states regarding their perceptions of the progress and problems associated with TQM implementation in their departments. Managers’ own familiarity with TQM principles is contrasted with their perceptions of their peers’, their subordinates’, and their supervisors’ familiarity with TQM principles. The survey highlights managerial perceptions of the extent to which the department’s public commitment to TQM is being formally implemented, as well as the perceived value of TQM initiatives to DOT operations. Specific insights regarding perceived DOT customer importance rankings are presented, as is information concerning obstacles to TQM implementation and how to overcome them. Strategies for measuring TQM success in DOTs are offered, and the implications of the findings are presented.

Senior executives and the ISO 9000‐TQM transition

Synthesizes 12 factors from the literature which are likely to influence organizational transition from ISO 9000 registration to TQM. All 12 factors relate to the roles and responsibilities of senior executives. Applies some of these factors to a sub‐group of 37 selected companies further to test four hypotheses formulated in an earlier paper. These factors define many of the conditions necessary for the continuance of TQM and are subsequently used to identify those companies which were likely to encounter problems sustaining their TQM initiatives. Presents further empirical data from the second phase of a longitudinal study of these companies over the period 1992‐1996. These data show which companies were continuing with TQM and which (ten) had declared it a failure. Highlights a further 13 which are at risk of having terminal problems with TQM. Rather than use these data for “headline” purposes, recommends deeper exploration to identify possible causes of difficulty.

The management and control of quality in a process industry

Aims to explore the role of management and control of quality in a process industry. Specifically, focuses on the current practices in the process of making cheese. Develops a survey instrument to measure managers’ perceptions regarding the extent to which various quality management procedures are implemented in the production of cheese. Reveals several interesting observations: for instance, many of the managers believed that implementing more quality control procedures positively contribute towards better quality, increased productivity, and improved exporting capabilities. Moreover, employee training was viewed as a critical factor to the success of TQM initiatives in organizations. Reports other interesting results relating to the different types of tests that are commonly employed during the production of cheese and whether every plant should have a separate quality control department.

SCIENCE, SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, AND TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

This article analyzes Total Quality Management as an innovation in organizational technology that can be used by companies to increase productivity of both labor and capital. As an organizing technology, TQM has three distinguishing features: (1) it is science-based in sense that individuals at all levels of organization are trained to use scientific method in everyday decision-making; (2) it is non-hierarchical insofar as it provides a process for decentralizing decision-making in ways that do not correspond to traditional corporate hierarchy; (3) it is non-market-oriented in that it does not use prices or formal exchange mechanisms, such as transfer pricing systems, to motivate cooperation or transfer of decision rights.Despite potential benefits of TQM, and many TQM success stories, there is also considerable testimony to difficulty of establishing and maintaining effective TQM programs. We suggest that one important source of TQM's implementation problems has been failure to develop a systematic approach to identifying entire set of organizational changes required by a comprehensive TQM program. While typically arising out of a concern for product quality, most successful TQM programs end up becoming efficiency improvement initiatives that involve organization-wide changes in decision-making authority and performance measures. For this reason, effective implementation of TQM requires major changes in all three components of what we refer to collectively as organizational rules of game--that is, not only (1) systems for allocating decision rights and (2) performance measurement systems, but also (3) reward and punishment systems. Unlike those quality advocates like Edward Deming who object to use of monetary incentives to reinforce TQM initiatives, we argue that the increased decentralization associated with TQM should be associated with a strengthening of relation between performance and rewards of all types.Note: This paper draws heavily on our Journal of Accounting and Economics paper of same title, Volume 18, 1994, pp. 247-287. See working paper version of this paper Science, Specific Knowledge, and Total Quality Management.