Total Wage Research Articles

Workers, Workplaces, Sorting, and Wage Dispersion in Mexico

Between 2004 and 2018, the spread of wages in Mexico’s private labor sector remained stable. Nonetheless, the underlying factors behind salary dispersion underwent significant shifts nationally and regionally. We analyze a matched employer-employee dataset comprising the near-universe of Mexico’s formal workforce. We estimate log wage models with worker and workplace fixed effects capturing over 94% of wage variation. We then decompose national and regional earnings dispersions into worker, workplace and assortative matching components. At the national level, we find that sorting increased its importance over time, from explaining 16% of total wage variance to 19% by the end of the period. Worker- and workplace-specific factors contributed between 37% to 44% and 33% to 37% to the total spread of remunerations, respectively. Workplace factors became increasingly important during the 2014–2018 time segment, to the point that their contribution to total wage variance is equivalent to that of worker factors. The influence of workplace factors on wage dispersion correlates negatively with regional economic development: It is lowest in the North, Mexico’s most-developed region, and largest in the South, the country’s least-prosperous region. JEL Classification Codes: J21; J31; R23; O15; O54

Project Acceleration Analysis Using the Crashing Method with The Alternative of Additional Labor and Additional Working Hours in Drainage Work

Project work delays often occur due to differences in site conditions, design changes, weather influences, and planning errors. The problem faced is the project duration, where if the project duration is accelerated or crashes, there will be several options to cut the project duration. This is the problem that becomes the topic of the thesis/journal, namely "Analysis of Project Acceleration with the Crashing Method with Alternatives for Adding Manpower and Additional Working Hours in Drainage Works". The author uses the primary method, with sources of RAB, Time Schedule, working drawings and analysis of city unit prices. As well as secondary research methods with sources, from relevant books, and project data such as price lists and wages. From the results of the study it can be concluded that the total wages of workers under normal conditions is IDR. 16,864,000.00 with the duration of project work for 30 working days. From the results of the analysis in this study, the total wages of workers with alternative labor additions of IDR. 19,672,000.00 with the duration of project construction work for 25 working days or 15.15% faster than the normal duration. Meanwhile, the total wage for workers with the alternative of additional working hours (overtime) is IDR. 25,052,300.00 with the duration of the project construction work for 25 working days or 15.15% faster than the normal duration. A more economical alternative to completing the project is the addition of manpower because it saves IDR. 2,228,000.00 from additional working hours (overtime), from normal wages.

Strategic Workforce Planning in Crowdsourced Delivery With Hybrid Driver Fleets

Nowadays, logistics service providers (LSPs) increasingly consider using a crowdsourced workforce on the last mile to fulfill customers’ expectations regarding same-day or on-demand delivery at reduced costs. The crowdsourced workforce’s availability is, however, uncertain. Therefore, LSPs often hire additional fixed employees to perform deliveries when the availability of crowdsourced drivers is low. In this context, the reliability versus flexibility trade-off which LSPs face over a longer period, for example, a year, remains unstudied. Against this background, we jointly study a workforce planning problem that considers salaried drivers (SDs) and the temporal development of the crowdsourced driver (CD) fleet over a long-term time horizon. We consider two types of CDs, dedicated gig-drivers (DDs) and opportunistic gig-drivers (ODs). While DDs are not sensitive to the request’s destination and typically exhibit high availability, ODs only serve requests whose origin and destination coincide with their own private route’s origin and destination. Moreover, to account for time horizon-specific dynamics, we consider stochastic turnover for both SDs and CDs as well as stochastic CD fleet growth. We formulate the resulting workforce planning problem as a Markov decision process whose reward function reflects total costs, that is, wages and operational costs arising from serving demand with SDs and CDs, and solve it via approximate dynamic programming. Applying our approach to an environment based on real-world demand data from GrubHub, we find that in fleets consisting of SDs and CDs, approximate dynamic programming (ADP)-based hiring policies can outperform myopic hiring policies by up to [Formula: see text] and lookahead policies with perfect knowledge of future information by up to [Formula: see text] in total costs. In the studied setting, we observed that DDs reduce the LSP’s total costs more than ODs. When we account for CDs’ increased resignation probability when not being matched with enough requests, the amount of required SDs increases.

Spatio-temporal task pricing for shared electric micro-mobility battery-swapping platform with reinforcement learning

Spatial crowdsourcing has emerged in shared electric micro-mobility platforms, compensating occasional drivers (ODs) per task of swapping micro-mobility batteries. As ODs autonomously select tasks only when satisfied with predetermined compensation and travel distance, a traditional uniform pricing strategy results in possible low task completion. To resolve the imbalance between ODs and tasks, this study introduces a spatio-temporal pricing strategy where task prices differ by region and time interval. Considering the daily variations in task distribution and OD availability, the goal is to minimise the platform costs equal to the sum of total OD wages and penalties for uncompleted tasks. The reinforcement learning approach with proximal policy optimisation (PPO) is implemented to generate real-time continuous task prices. A domain-specific masking technique is incorporated to improve the learning process by disregarding the data from inactive grids in loss calculations. Computational results show that the PPO agent strategically raises prices in regions with insufficient ODs according to the OD density level. Further comparison with the mixed integer programming model with perfect information on ODs' willingness-to-accept parameters demonstrates the superior capability of our algorithm in navigating the uncertainties of OD task acceptance. A sensitivity analysis provides insights into the decision of system parameters.

Determinants of Financial Shortfalls in State-Owned Railway Systems: An Ardl Approach for Sri Lanka Railways

Sri Lanka Railways (SLR) has been experiencing a financial shortfall since the 1940s, characterised by operational expenditure exceeding total revenue. This study aimed to identify the critical determinants of the financial shortfall of Sri Lanka Railways (SLR) using an econometric approach. Employing a quantitative methodology, the study utilised secondary and manipulated data from 1977 to 2022 to examine the effects of four key variables: revenue shortfall from fare revisions (FRFR), subsidised season tickets (FRSS), freight transport volume (FTK), and total wage bill (WB), incorporating the general price level (CCPI) to account for inflation. The regression analysis, using the Auto Regressive Distributed Lag Model, identified a short-run relationship between the financial shortfall (LFS) and lagged variables, including the volume of rail freight transport (LFTK), total employee wage bill (LWB), and the general price level (LCCPI). A long-run relationship was found among revenue shortfall from fare revisions (LFRFR), LWB, LCCPI, and LFS. The findings highlight the significant impact of aligning railway fares with bus fares and managing employee expenses on SLR's financial shortfall. Additionally, the revenue shortfall from subsidised season tickets showed a significant relationship at a 10% significance level, both short-term and long-term. The study underscores the necessity of revising railway fares in line with bus fares to enhance revenue and ensure financial sustainability. Optimising employee-related costs through effective management and reviewing the subsidy structure for season tickets are also recommended. Furthermore, investment in capacity and facility development for freight transport is crucial for mitigating long-term financial shortfalls.

Nursing home finances associated with real estate investment trust and private equity investments.

In 2021, real estate investment trusts (REITs) and private equity (PE) held investments in 1915 (16%) and 1569 (13%) US nursing homes (NHs), respectively. We created a database of REIT and PE investments in NHs, merged it with Medicare Cost Report data (2011-2019), and used a difference-in-differences approach within an event-study framework to compare NH spending and financial performance before and after REIT or PE investment to NHs that did not receive REIT or PE investment. REIT investments were associated with higher total wages (3%), total nursing wages (3%; both logged, per resident day [PRD]), and current ratio (81%). PE investments were associated with lower net patient service revenue (7%), total expenses (7%), and total wages (8%; all logged, PRD). The impact of REIT and PE investments in NHs may vary in different market conditions, as may occur in the current environment of low, falling NH profits, potentially higher minimum staffing requirements, and rising interest rates. Therefore, it is important for stakeholders to understand the impact of these large, growing investments on the financial performance of NHs.

Pandemic‐induced De‐urbanization in Indonesia: Urban and Rural Impacts

In Indonesia, the negative health impact of COVID‐19 and the initial, direct loss of employment have been largest in urban, not rural areas. But the second‐round effects on labor markets have been very different. They have included a huge, empirically documented migration of newly unemployed urban workers from urban to rural areas, in urgent search of employment, food, and safety from the pandemic. We call this “de‐urbanization.” It placed the migrating workers in economic competition with the least skilled agricultural workers, expanding their numbers by almost 8%. By increasing the supply of unskilled farm labor, de‐urbanization depressed farm workers' real wages. Because the demand for farm labor is inelastic, the total wage income of these workers, aggregated across all unskilled farm laborers, declined. The households relying on this source of income are by far Indonesia's poorest. Similar outcomes may occur in other pandemic‐affected developing countries with large agricultural sectors.

Trade liberalisation and off-farm employment of the rural labour force: Evidence from China’s WTO accession

This paper investigates the impact of trade liberalisation on the rural labour force in China, with a particular focus on labour mobility and off-farm employment. The analysis utilises micro data from the National Fixed Point Survey and Chinese manufacturing firms. The identification strategy relies on combining information on the initial province labour and product market structure with the exogenous tariff reduction schedule over WTO accession and distinguishes between output markets and intermediate input tariffs. The results are as follows: First, the reduction of output tariffs does not promote rural labour mobility, whereas the reduction of input tariffs has a positive impact on mobility. Additionally, output tariffs reduce off-farm employment income and time, while input tariffs increase them. This conclusion is applicable only to low-skilled labour. Second, the tariff reduction significantly affects total wages and the number of employees in firms, as supported by macro data. This suggests that tariff cuts have implications for firm employment and, consequently, rural employment. Third, tariff cuts have a more pronounced effect on young individuals, those with lower levels of education, and the female workforce. Therefore, the interests of these groups should be fully considered in the process of further import liberalisation and tariff reduction.

Assessing the price levels of medical service and influential factors: evidence from China

BackgroundMedical service prices play a crucial role in cost containment in China. This study aimed to assess the change in medical service price levels at the macro level and the relationship with relevant macroeconomic factors.MethodsData from the 2022 China Statistics Yearbook, the 2022 China Health Statistics Yearbook, and the 2020 China National Health Accounts Report were used. Time trends of health price levels, utilization, and health expenditure were examined. A time-series regression model was employed to measure the impact of service utilization and medical service prices on total medical service expenditure growth from 2000 to 2021. The Johansen cointegration test was conducted to test the cointegrating relationship between medical service price levels and total medical service expenditure, average wage of employees and CPI. The Granger causality test was performed to observe the direction of causality.ResultsDescriptive analyses showed consistent growth in utilization and medical service price levels from 2000 to 2021. The time-series model indicated that medical service expenditure was influenced by the rise in inpatient admissions and price levels of medical service and medicine. The Johansen cointegration test identified a long-term equilibrium relationship between medical service price levels and total medical service expenditure, average wage and CPI. The change in medical service price levels was the Granger cause of the change in medical service expenditure, but it had no impact on average wage and CPI. However, the change in medical service price levels was influenced by these three macroeconomic factors.ConclusionsThe growth of medical service expenditure in China was driven by inpatient use and price level. There was a long-term equilibrium relationship between medical service price levels and relevant macroeconomic factors. However, medical service price levels only affected medical service expenditure and have no impact on average wage and CPI. It is necessary to improve the value transmission mechanism of medical service prices.

Ischemic heart disease and stroke in male couriers: a cohort study using the national health insurance data and national employment insurance data.

This study aimed to determine the risk of ischemic heart disease (IHD) and stroke among male couriers in Korea by linking the data from the National Health Insurance (NHI) and National Employee Insurance (NEI) databases. As of 2015, the NHI and NEI databases were linked using individual IDs. A cohort of male couriers, aged between 20 and 64 years, (N = 5,012) was constructed using the Korean Employment Insurance Occupational Classification (KECO-2007). For comparison, a cohort of male total wage workers (N = 5,429,176) and a cohort of office workers (N = 632,848) within the same age group were also constructed. The follow-up was conducted until 31 December 2020 to confirm the occurrence of IHD and stroke. The diagnoses were defined using the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) codes. The criteria included medical services for more than 1 day of hospitalization or more than 2 outpatient visits. The age-standardized incidence ratio (SIR) was calculated to evaluate the risk of occurrence. The hazard ratio (HR) was calculated using the Cox model after adjusting for age, alcohol consumption, smoking, obesity, income level, and employment duration as confounding variables. The SIR of IHD for couriers was 1.54 (95% CI 1.31-1.78), while for office workers, it was 1.08 (95% CI 1.06-1.10), compared to male total wage workers. The SIR for stroke was higher for couriers at 1.84 (95% CI 1.40-2.28) and lower for office workers at 0.86, compared to male total wage workers. Couriers had a higher SIR for stroke at 1.84 (95% CI 1.40-2.28) and lower for office workers at 0.86 (0.83-0.89). Compared to total wage workers, couriers had a significantly higher adjusted HR for IHD at 1.60 (95% CI 1.37-1.87) and a higher HR for stroke at 1.39 (95% CI 1.07-1.79). Compared to office workers, couriers had a significantly higher HR for IHD at 1.34 (95% CI 1.13-1.59) as well as for for stroke at 1.43 (95% CI 1.08-1.88). The incidence of IHD and stroke was higher among male couriers compared to male office workers and total wage workers, highlighting the need for implementing public health interventions to prevent IHD and stroke among couriers.

장기요양기관 사회복지직의 임금공정성 인식 영향요인

The purpose of this study was to explore factors affecting perceived fairness of wages among social workers in long-term care institutions and to determine what could positively affect perceived fairness of wages of these workers. The 2017 social welfare workers' remuneration levels and working environment survey data conducted by the Korea Institute of Health and Social Affairs were used for analysis. Study subjects were 1,441 social workers in long-term care institutions. This study was conducted by dividing subjects into three categories: personal characteristics, work environment characteristics, and organizational characteristics. The analysis method used was the rank regression analysis. Results of analysis showed that, in terms of personal characteristics, age and education level were statistically significant in the perception of fairness of wages. In terms of work environment characteristics, working hours, number of overtime hours, level of dangerous experiences (such as violence, job satisfaction, satisfaction with promotion opportunities, and satisfaction with welfare) were statistically related to perceived fairness of wages. In terms of organizational characteristics, the type of organization and monthly salary showed associations with perceived fairness of wages. Based on results of this research, this study recommends that policy interventions should comprehensively take into account characteristics of the work environment, such as promotion opportunities that are useful for positively evaluating the value of work, strengthening staff welfare, preparing measures to prevent violent experiences, and increasing total wages to reduce turnover and stabilize retention of social workers working in long-term care institutions.

How clientelism undermines state capacity: Evidence from Mexican municipalities

Does clientelism perpetuate the weak state capacity that characterizes many young democracies? Prior work explains that clientelistic parties skew public spending to private goods and under-supply public goods. Building on these insights, this article argues that clientelism creates a bureaucratic trap. Governments that rely on clientelism invest in labor-intensive, low-skilled bureaucracies that can design and implement relatively more straightforward distributive policies. Although such bureaucracies are useful to win some elections, they lack the administrative capacity to sustain economic and human development. Empirically, the article examines the wage structure of municipal bureaucracies as a proxy for the personnel’s education and skills in Mexico between 2012 and 2018. During this period, turnover in the party in power in municipalities was frequent, a situation that also allows investigating how resilient the bureaucratic trap is to increased competition. The results show that all political parties invest in labor-intensive, low-skilled bureaucracies. However, the bureaucratic trap has a different grip on the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), a quintessential clientelistic party, compared to other parties. After an electoral turnover, PRI’s bureaucracies have a larger proportion of low-wage personnel compared to the bureaucracies of other parties. Moreover, after an electoral turnover, the PRI allocates more resources to social assistance, subsidies, and internal transfers that are more conducive to clientelism. The overall size of the bureaucracy and the total wage bill are not affected in the same way, suggesting that there is indeed a trade-off between hiring lower and higher skilled employees. While prior work has proposed other clientelism-induced negative equilibria, this article offers a more direct path from clientelism to state capacity. The results help explain why more fiscal resources, political competition, and demand-side strategies to fight vote buying are insufficient and underscore the importance of civil service reform to tame clientelism.

Efficiency Analysis of Pharmaceutical Companies in Pakistan: A Case Study of Ten Famous Companies

Pharmaceutical companies contribute a remarkable amount to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment, and poverty reduction. Pakistan has a very dynamic and reforming Pharmaceutical Industry. Around 759 pharmaceutical companies are operating in Pakistan. However, the study selected 10 leading pharmaceutical companies as a sample. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was applied to analyse the efficiency of Pharmaceutical companies in selecting Total Assets, Liabilities, Equity, Salaries, Wages and other benefits, Sales, Earning Per Share (EPS), Dividend Per Share (DPS), and Return on Equity (ROE). The study ranked the pharmaceutical companies about the optimum utilization of input resources and to maximize the output that provides a guideline to other pharmaceutical companies to increase their revenues by improving their resource utilization following the leading companies’ models. Moreover, adopting the same strategy in figuring out ways to increase their efficiencies. This increase in efficiency will make the entire industry better off. It will also increase the GDP of the country.

The migrant pay gap in Spain: Where do the differences come from?

AbstractThis paper focuses on the migrant pay gap in Spain. Going beyond descriptive evidence of the differences between immigrants and nationals in terms of wages, we analyse which part of the gross wage is most affected by features that cannot be captured using econometric models. Relying on microdata from the Wage Structure Survey, we divide the total gross wage into two main parts: base wage and wage supplements. Then we decompose the migrant wage gap into the explained and the unexplained terms, using a simple decomposition methodology, the Oaxaca-Blinder model. Our results show that a part of the differences in wage supplements does not seem to be explained by the set of control variables introduced in the model and that this effect is more pronounced when only men are considered. These findings offer a new perspective on the migrant pay gap in Spain and point to the importance of wage-setting practices related to wage supplements in explaining (and widening) the total migrant pay gap in our country.

Analisis Faktor-Faktor Yang Mem Engaruhi Produksi Ledre Pisang Di UD. Dua Putri Dewi, Kota Malang

The purpose of this study was to find out what factors influenced the production of banana ledre and what were the most dominant factors affecting ledre production at UD. Dua Putri Dewi, Malang City. Independent variables, namely raw material costs, outpouring of labor, total wages and the dependent variable is the amount of ledre banana production. The analysis used in this study uses multiple regression analysis because to determine the effect of each variable production factor. The research variables are raw material costs, labor outlays, and total wages. To find out the effect of each factor of production variables, F test and t test (0,05) were conducted and to find out which dominant production factors were influential, a coefficient regression test was carried out. The results of analysis F test calculated = 6.896 > Ft abel = 2.87 or significantly Fhit ung = 0.001 < 0.05, meaning H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted. This shows together there is a significant influence of production factors on the amount of ledre banana production in UD. Dua Putri Dewi, Malang City. The results of the t-test analysis of the factors of production of raw material costs thit ung = 2.925 > tt abel = 0.68223, outpouring of labor thit ung = 3.142 > tt abel = 0.68223, and the number of wages thit ung = 0.161 > tt abel = 0.68223. The factors of production of raw material costs and outpouring of labor have a significant effect on ledre production at a 95% confidence level. The factor of production of wage amount does not have a significant effect on the amount of ledre production at the 95% confidence level because of the sig value. production factor greater than 0.05.

Provision of Hospital Price Information After Increases in Financial Penalties for Failure to Comply With a US Federal Hospital Price Transparency Rule

Price transparency regulations aim to help patients make informed decisions about medical care, but enforcing these rules is a policy challenge. There may be an association between financial penalties and hospital compliance for enforcing price transparency regulations. To evaluate the association between financial penalties and acute care hospital compliance with the 2021 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) Price Transparency Rule. This cohort study uses an instrumental variable design to evaluate the responses of 4377 acute care hospitals in the US operating in 2021 and 2022 to changes in financial penalties in the context of a federal rule requiring hospitals to disclose privately negotiated prices. Changes in noncompliance penalties between 2021 and 2022 based on a nonlinear function of bed counts. Whether hospitals publicly posted a machine-readable file with private, payer-specific negotiated prices at the service-code level. Negative controls were used to address confounding. The final sample included 4377 hospitals. Compliance increased from 70.4% (n = 3082) in 2021 to 87.7% (n = 3841) in 2022, with 90.2% of hospitals (n = 3948) reporting prices in at least 1 year. Noncompliance penalties increased from $109 500/y in 2021 to a mean (SD) of $510 976 ($534 149)/y in 2022. Penalties in 2022 were substantial, averaging 0.49% of total hospital revenue, 0.53% of total hospital costs, and 1.3% of total employee wages. Compliance increases were significantly positively correlated with penalty increases: a $500 000 increase in penalty was associated with a 2.9-percentage point (95% CI, 1.7-4.2 percentage points; P < .001) increase in compliance. Results were robust to controlling for observable hospital characteristics. No associations were found for preperiod (2021) compliance or ranges of bed counts where penalties do not vary. In this cohort study of 4377 hospitals, compliance with the CMS Price Transparency Rule was associated with increased financial penalties. These findings are relevant for the enforcement of other regulations designed to promote transparency in health care.

Evidence of the Unintended Labor Scheduling Implications of the Minimum Wage

Problem definition: The effect of the minimum wage is an important yet controversial topic that has received attention for decades. Our study is the first to take an operational lens and empirically study the impact of the minimum wage on firms’ scheduling practices. Methodology/results: Using a highly granular data set from a chain of fashion retail stores, we estimate that a $1 increase in the minimum wage, although having a negligible impact on the total labor hours used by the stores, leads to a 27.7% increase in the number of workers scheduled per week, but a 19.4% reduction in weekly hours per worker. For an average store in California, these changes translate into four extra workers and five fewer hours per worker per week. Such scheduling adjustment not only reduces the total wage compensation per worker but also reduces workers’ eligibility for benefits. We also show that the minimum wage increase reduces the consistency of weekly and daily schedules for workers. For example, the absolute (relative) deviation in weekly hours worked by each worker increases by up to 32.9% (6.6%) and by up to 9.7% (2.1%) in daily hours, as the minimum wage increases by $1. Managerial implications: Our study empirically identifies and highlights a new operational mechanism through which increasing the minimum wage may negatively impact worker welfare. Our further analysis suggests that the combination of the reduced hours, lower eligibility for benefits, and less consistent schedules (that resulted from the minimum wage increase) may substantially hurt worker welfare, even when the overall employment at the stores stay unchanged. By better understanding the intrinsic tradeoff of firms’ scheduling decisions, policy makers can better design minimum wage policies that will truly benefit workers. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2023.1212 .

A job trial subsidy for youth: Cheap labour or a screening device?

AbstractThis paper evaluates a 90‐day hiring subsidy designed for young jobseekers aged below 25, introduced in Hungary in 2015 as part of the Youth Guarantee programme. The subsidy covers the total wage cost with no obligation to retain the new hire when the subsidy expires. The analysis is based on linked administrative data on registered unemployment, cognitive skills measured around age 15, healthcare, and social security records. The causal impact of the subsidy on subsequent employment is identified in comparison to participants of a uniquely large public works programme, using propensity score matching with exceptionally rich controls. The estimates indicate significant positive effects: participants spent 14–20 days more in employment within 6 months after the programme ended in the whole sample. The impact is weaker on the 12‐month horizon. We find that the subsidy works well as a screening device: the programme has the highest impact on youths who have very low levels of schooling (8 years of primary school or less), but scored high on cognitive skills tests. One potential explanation is that employers tend to retain those with better cognitive skills, irrespective of their formal qualifications. We also find some indication that the subsidy is (mis)used by some employers to hire short term, seasonal workers.

Regional Impact Analysis of Carbon Tax Implementation on Indonesia’s Coal Power Plant with Interregional Input-output Method

The excessive use of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide) causes a global emission of greenhouse gases. This has eventually brought climate change and global warming, that will affect the human life standard. Also it has several economical impacts such as increasing the mitigation budget for anticipating the climate change problems by applying a carbon tax as one of strategies to reduce carbon emissions. Carbon tax is one of additional economic instrument and has high possibility to be implemented in Indonesia to help its future low carbon development especially on energy sector. Under such a circumstance, this paper aims to predict the possible impact of implementing a carbon tax implementation on Coal Power Plant (CPP) and revenue recycling for 6 regions in Indonesia i.e. Sumatera, Jawa, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua. The IRIO (InterRegional InputOutput) model of six regions in Indonesia has been developed based on the Central Bureau of Statistics with seventeen sectors in 2016 to evaluate the impact of carbon taxes with a carbon price of 2,1 USD/ton on CPP and to show the scenarios for the distribution impact of carbon tax revenues on output, wages, and GRDP. The results show the implementation of a carbon price of e 2.1USD/ton will give extra revenue of around 241 Billion Rupiah nationally with the distribution of 73%, 15%, 7%, 3%, 2%, and 1% from Java, Sumatera, Kalimantan, Bali-Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku-Papua, respectively. Through revenue recycling, those values could increase the total output, wages, and GDRP per region by around 451, 100, and 169 Billion Rupiah, respectively. The revenue recyling option and its economic impact for each 17 sectors are also identified in the study with spesific characteristics for each region. In conclusion, the result could help the government determine its climate change mitigation strategy, so it could boost the regional economy. Based on the study results, this paper recommends the government to conduct an intensive monitoring and evaluation on low carbon policies for CPP in Java and Sulawesi.

South African government personnel expenditure 2006–2021: Methodological considerations in using remuneration data

ABSTRACT The level of detail, coverage, accuracy, completeness and time range of personnel expenditure data available in the transversal payroll system used by South African national and provincial government departments, PERSAL, offers opportunities for wage bill analysis that is not possible with the more common and well-known approaches of using either highly summarised tabled data, reported data or survey data. This paper describes a methodology that was developed to extract trends in the wage bill and personnel numbers. The key drivers of total wage bill growth have been identified as personnel growth and salary growth and this paper demonstrates how to disaggregate total growth into these two key drivers. The full-time equivalent is proposed as a measure for annual headcounts, as it provides an accurate summary. Appropriate stratification when analysing the impact of remuneration policies is highlighted. The structuring of payroll data as employees’ career trajectories enables the analysis of changes at the personal level, adding insight to into personnel movements and improvements in salaries.