Total Food Requirements Research Articles

Prevalence of aflatoxigenic fungi and contamination in soils and maize grains from aflatoxin-hot spot areas in Tanzania

Maize is a major food security crop contributing over 50 % of total food requirement in Tanzania. However, number of factors limit its production and quality. Aflatoxins contamination mostly produced by two Aspergillus species, A. flavus and A. parasticus compromise food safety, public health and economic concern globally. Despite its harmful effects little is documented on the aflatoxin- producing fungi on prevalence’s and contamination levels in soils and maize. The present study investigated Aflatoxigenic occurrence and aflatoxins contamination extents in seven districts. A total of 126 soil and 126 maize samples were collected and analyzed for presence, dominance, and levels of aflatoxin contaminations. Serial dilution and direct plating techniques were used for fungal isolation from soil and maize respectively and macro morphology characterization were used for identification. Aflatoxin levels were detected by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. A. flavus (38.1 %), A. parasiticus (22.2 %) and A. niger (16.7 %) were found to be the most dominant linked to aflatoxins B1 contamination. Total Aflatoxins were detected in Bahi (72.2 %, with mean of 87.9 μg/kg), Chemba (61.2 %, 74.2 μg/kg), and Babati (56.3 %, 65.8 μg/kg) indicating these were more prone to aflatoxins and higher aflatoxigenic prevalence. Aflatoxin B1 was detected most in Bahi (22.4 %, 402.4 μg/kg), Chemba (13.4 %, 241 μg/kg), and Babati (11.1 %, 199.2 μg/kg). Fungal counts ranged 3.4 ×105 to 6.9 ×107 CFU/g for contaminated samples. Aflatoxigenic species varied significantly (P<0.001) between cropping systems and the locations. Aflatoxigenic occurrence and levels were shown to be influenced by the cropping systems, as evidenced by the soils exhibiting a higher frequency than maize grains. Compared to mixed cropping, the mono-cropping system exhibited the greatest levels of aflatoxigenic population and aflatoxin contamination, indicating that farming practices affect contaminations and the need for improved cropping system practices.

Assessing the contribution of traditional foods to food security for the Wapekeka First Nation of Canada.

The food security crisis and disproportionately high burden of dietary related disease amongst northern Indigenous populations in Canada continues to be a troubling reality with little sign of improvement. The Government of Canada is responding by developing programs to support local food initiatives for northern isolated communities. While such investments appear commendable, the impact of local food harvesting to improve food security has yet to be determined. While there are clear nutritional and cultural benefits to traditional food sources, communities face considerable barriers acquiring it in sufficient amounts because of historically imposed lifestyle changes that have increased food insecurity rates. This study responds by providing a novel multidisciplinary approach that draws from firsthand experiences working with First Nations community members in a remote subarctic region in northwestern, Ontario, to estimate their community's total food requirement and the amount of wild animal food sources needed to sustain yearly food intake. This transferrable energy demand approach will be critical for policy makers to put into perspective the amount of wild food needed to have an impact on food security rates and ultimately improve dietary related diseases. Novelty: Provide government policy makers information about current harvest yields in a remote northern First Nation to understand the potential contribution of traditional food to improve local food security. Provide Indigenous communities a means to assess local food resources to measure the caloric contributions of traditional foods toward household food security.

SEED HYDROPRIMING TECHNIQUE IN CEREAL CROPS: A REVIEW

Cereals contribute to 50% of total caloric intake and 95% of the total food requirement globally. Increasing climate change and population has increased the food demand and endangered the productivity of food crops due to various biotic and abiotic stresses and within these conditions’ world is trying to push itself towards increasing the grain yield per unit of land. Several methods of seed priming are practiced to rejuvenate the seeds and remove the environmental stress. Hydro priming, a method of seed priming, has prominent advantage of stresses resistance, better crop stand, and emergence. In order to cope with the future challenges of crop productivity knowledge on the beneficial effects of hydro priming is important. Hydro priming induces DNA repair processes and Antioxidant responses associated as pre-germinative metabolism that leads to early and better seedling growth. Seed Hydro priming may be the best solution to the germination related problems especially in crops grown in unfavorable conditions and enhanced activation of the plant defense mechanism describes this process. Defining the exact treatment duration, water volume, and temperature of water during Hydro priming can revolutionize the farming system with better results.

Future Impact of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Ecosystem Services in the Lower Meghna River Estuary, Bangladesh

Assessing the effects of different land use scenarios on subsequent changes in ecosystem service has great implications for sustainable land management. Here, we designed four land use/land cover (LULC) scenarios, such as business-as-usual development (BAUD), economic development priority (EDP), ecological protection priority (EPP), and afforestation development priority (ADP), through a Cellular Automata-Markov (CA-Markov) model, and their effects on ecosystem service values (ESVs) were predicted, using historical LULC maps and ESV coefficients of the Lower Meghna River Estuary, Bangladesh. Findings revealed that agricultural and mangrove forest lands experienced the greatest decreases, while rural and urban settlement land had the greatest increases, leading to a total ESV decrease of US$105.34 million during 1988-2018. The scenario analysis indicated that ESV in 2038 would also decrease by US$41.37 million and US$16.38 million under the BAUD and EDP scenarios, respectively, while ESV will increase by US$60.61 million and US$130.95 million under the EPP and ADP scenarios, respectively. However, all the future land use scenarios will lead to 1.65%, 10.21%, 7.58%, and 6.75% gaps in total food requirements, respectively. Hence, from the perspective of maximizing ESVs and minimizing the trade-offs in food gaps, the ADP scenario could be the optimal land management policy for the studied landscape.

Evaluations of water yield and soil erosion in the Shaanxi-Gansu Loess Plateau under different land use and climate change scenarios

More water yield and less soil erosion are crucial to the sustainable development of the Loess Plateau and Yellow River basin. Different land use policies and climate change scenarios may have great implications on water yield and soil erosion. In this paper, four land development scenarios and two climate change scenarios are designed and applied to the Shaanxi-Gansu Loess Plateau. The InVEST model is applied to quantitatively evaluate the water yield and soil erosion modulus in 2030. It showed: (1) Arable land and grassland is always the dominant land types in the Shaanxi-Gansu Loess Plateau and cover more than 76% of the area. The business-as-usual and ecological protection priority scenarios may lead to increases in the local food security risks, with 1.9% and 1.4% gaps in the total food requirements. (2) Under the RCP2.6 scenario, the annual water yield and annual soil erosion amount increased by more than 63% (2.84*109 m3) and 22% (96.0*106 t), respectively. Under the RCP4.5 scenario, the annual water yield and annual soil erosion decreased by more than 48% (2.17*109 m3) and 26% (114.3*106 t), respectively. (3) The influence of climate change on water yield and soil erosion is far greater than that of land use change. The contribution of climate change to the water yield changes is 92.8–99.6%, while the contribution of land use change is 0.4–7.2%. The contribution rate of climate change to soil erosion changes is 84.8–91.1%, while the contribution rate of land use change is 8.9–15.2%. The key ecological services, such as food production, water yield, soil and water conservation, should be carefully weighed and coordinated in the Loess Plateau and areas with limited land surfaces, such as small island development states.

Food Surplus and Its Climate Burdens.

Avoiding food loss and waste may counteract the increasing food demand and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the agricultural sector. This is crucial because of limited options available to increase food production. In the year 2010, food availability was 20% higher than was required on a global scale. Thus, a more sustainable food production and adjusted consumption would have positive environmental effects. This study provides a systematic approach to estimate consumer level food waste on a country scale and globally, based on food availability and requirements. The food requirement estimation considers demographic development, body weights, and physical activity levels. Surplus between food availability and requirements of a given country is considered as food waste. The global food requirement changed from 2,300 kcal/cap/day to 2,400 kcal/cap/day during the last 50 years, while food surplus grew from 310 kcal/cap/day to 510 kcal/cap/day. Similarly, GHG emissions related to the food surplus increased from 130 Mt CO2eq/yr to 530 Mt CO2eq/yr, an increase of more than 300%. Moreover, the global food surplus may increase up to 850 kcal/cap/day, while the total food requirement will increase only by 2%-20% by 2050. Consequently, GHG emissions associated with the food waste may also increase tremendously to 1.9-2.5 Gt CO2eq/yr.

Short-term changes in the mesozooplankton community and copepod gut pigment in the Chukchi Sea in autumn: reflections of a strong wind event

Abstract. To evaluate the effect of atmospheric turbulence on a marine ecosystem, high-frequency samplings (two to four times per day) of a mesozooplankton community and the gut pigment of dominant copepods were performed at a fixed station in the Chukchi Sea from 10 to 25 September 2013. During the study period, a strong wind event (SWE) was observed on 18 September. After the SWE, the biomass of chlorophyll a (Chl a) increased, especially for micro-size (&gt; 10 μm) fractions. The zooplankton abundance ranged from 23 610 to 56 809 ind. m−2 and exhibited no clear changes as a result of the SWE. In terms of abundance, calanoid copepods constituted the dominant taxa (mean: 57 %), followed by barnacle larvae (31 %). Within the calanoid copepods, small-sized Pseudocalanus spp. (65 %) and large-sized C. glacialis (30 %) dominated. In the population structure of C. glacialis, copepodid stage 5 (C5) dominated, and the mean copepodid stage did not vary with the SWE. The dominance of accumulated lipids in C5 and C6 females with immature gonads indicated that they were preparing for seasonal diapause. The gut pigment of C. glacialis C5 was higher at night and was correlated with ambient Chl a (Chl a, and a significant increase was observed after the SWE (2.6 vs. 4.5 ng pigment ind.−1). The grazing impact by C. glacialis C5 was estimated to be 4.14 mg C m−2 day−1, which corresponded to 0.5−4.6 % of the biomass of the micro-size phytoplankton. Compared with the metabolic food requirement, C. glacialis feeding on phytoplankton accounted for 12.6 % of their total food requirement. These facts suggest that C. glacialis could not maintain their population by feeding solely on phytoplankton and that other food sources (i.e., microzooplankton) must be important in autumn. As observed by the increase in gut pigment, the temporal phytoplankton bloom, which is enhanced by the atmospheric turbulence (SWE) in autumn, may have a positive effect on copepod nutrition.

Agronomic considerations for urban agriculture in southern cities

Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UA) provide a significant contribution to the total food requirements of cities, especially in southern cities of the developing world. Increasing food production in UA is therefore a necessity for increasing the food security of the urban poor. Urban environments are inherently different from rural environments and these differences in environmental conditions are expected to impact differently on crop growth. This review describes agronomic issues that are unique to UA and identifies possible interventions to address them. The constraints that can significantly differ include temperature, air quality, solar radiation and climate. The growth-limiting and growth-reducing factors that affect actual production in UA include water availability, nutrient supply, soil degradation, pests and soil pollution. The interventions addressing these constraints require action at both field level, and municipal or regional levels. The food security of the urban poor will therefore require coordinated efforts and cooperation between the farmers who produce food and the planners and policy makers who manage the supporting systems such as markets, inputs and land registration.

Reconceiving Food Security and Environmental Protection

The twin issues of food security and environmental protection for the remainder of the century will be defined by expectations that the population will continue to grow to 11 billion, mainly in less developed countries (LDCs), as well as by human behavior. This paper considers conventional analyses of food demand and compares these with wider philosophical perspectives that may modify approaches to agricultural science. The conventional approach is indicated in IFPRI research which models scenarios to 2020 and predicts an increased demand for cereal of 40% to be met by increased production mainly in LDCs, with more developed country (MDC) exports possibly falling with prices. While production seems adequate for the higher population, continued distributional and nutritional inequities are foreseen. Food production is likely to maintain priority over environmental protection in LDCs although environmental remediation should benefit from technology, particularly in MDCs. The agricultural environment represents human's widest spread of terrestrial environmental manipulation, and its monitoring is more economic than ecological in orientation. Rising understanding of the mutual causality between the impoverishment of people and the environment may well focus more on nontechnological factors through this century than the last. Outside agricultural circles, philosophical thought has advanced beyond the anthropocentric approaches of sustainable agriculture to consider the rights of nature, including humans. Increased societal awareness of such matters may influence the overall development paradigm within which rests most of our agricultural research. A reduction in total food requirements is implied in this paradigm as agricultural self-sufficiency is accepted as socially beneficial and as food security is conceived as a universal right of access to nutritious food. Such security implies increased protection of environments in LDCs. Whether such changes occur, there is value in widening the ethical perspective of all of us associated with the manipulation of nature and the planning of human development through the 21st century.

Carrying Capacity of Wetland Habitats Used by Breeding Greater Snow Geese

Because geese can damage their arctic breeding habitats through overgrazing, there is debate about limiting the rapid growth of the greater snow goose (Chen caerulescens atlantica) population and setting a population goal. To answer these questions, we assessed the nutritional carrying capacity of freshwater wetland habitats for breeding greater snow geese at the Bylot Island colony, Nunavut, Canada, Specifically, we (1) mapped the different types of wedands on the island; (2) estimated net aboveground primary production of these habitats; (3) compared total food availability with predicted total food requirements of the current population; and (4) validated our predictions of plant biomass consumed by comparing them to the intensity of goose grazing measured. Freshwater wetlands represented 173 ± 6 km 2 or 11% of the total area of the south plain of Bylot Island. Streams and wet polygons were the most important habitats in terms of availability of suitable forage plants for geese. The average net above-ground primary production ranged from 21.0 ± 4.6 along lakes to 46.0 ± 9.8 g/m 2 in polygon channels. We estimated the total food supply available for geese in wetlands at 2,625 ± 461 tons in 1997 but only 1,247 ± 473 tons in 1996, a year of low plant production. We predicted a summer food requirement for goslings at 8.1 ± 0.6 kg/bird, for breeding adults at 7.9 ± 2.3, and for nonbreeding adults at 4.7 ± 1.5, and we predicted the total summer food requirements of the goose population at 1,201 ± 160 tons. The predicted amount of biomass removed (32 ± 7%) agreed well with the actual amount of biomass removed measured in mid-August (39 ± 11%) in 1997, but not in 1996 (67 ± 27% vs 26 ± 17%, respectively), possibly because the goose population was lower that year due to poor breeding success. In 1997, the goose population was at 46 ± 10% of the theoretical short-term carrying capacity (341,000 geese) of the wetlands of Bylor Island. We recommend keeping the goose population below this theoretical carrying capacity.

Quantitative analysis of the use of discards from squid trawlers by Black‐browed Albatrosses Diomedea melanophris in the vicinity of the Falkland Islands

In the past decade, a major trawl fishery for the squid Loligo gahi has developed in the vicinity of Beauchêne Island, an internationally important breeding site for the Black‐browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris. The breeding season diet of this albatross in the Falklands and its use of discards generated by the Loligo fishery were investigated. Albatross chicks are fed extensively on commercially exploited species of squid and fish including Loligo gahi and southern blue whiting Micromesistius australis. The quantity of waste generated by the Loligo fishery amounts to c. 5% of the reported catch and just over 50% of this waste, mainly Loligo and nototheniid fish, is scavenged by adult Black‐browed Albatrosses. The total quantity scavenged during the chick rearing period amounts to 1000–2000 tonnes per year. This is equivalent to 10–15% of the total food requirement of the breeding Black‐browed Albatross population on Beauchene Island during the period when the fishery is operating. Although the Loligo fishery currently provides a significant quantity of food to these albatrosses, its net effect may be detrimental to them, as it is a much greater predator of Loligo stocks than the albatrosses are estimated to have been prior to the fishery's development.

Sequences in Metabolic Rates and Elemental Composition (C, N, P) During the Development of Euphausia Superba Dana and Estimated Food Requirements During Its Life Span

ABSTRACT Some general trends over the life history of Euphausia superba in the rates of metabolic activities (O2 uptake, ammonia excretion, phosphate excretion) and in the elemental composition (C, N, P) are presented. The O2 uptake rate of the eggs is low (about 0.1 μl O2 mg dry wt–1 h–1), rising to a maximum in the calyptopis stage (1-2 μl O2 mg dry wt–1 h–1), then decreasing gradually as development proceeds towards mature adults. Phosphate excretion rates tend to decrease from the calyptopes to the mature adults, while ammonia excretion rates are rather constant throughout these developmental stages. Although no excretion measurements were made on the eggs and nauplii, the rates are thought to be low since these stages do not feed. The high C content of the eggs (55% of dry weight) has dropped markedly by the calyptopis (33%) but then rises gradually with development towards the mature adult (48%). The N content is rather stable throughout the development from eggs to mature adults (9–11%). The eggs contain a low content of P (0.5%), but P reaches its maximum value at the calyptopis stage (1.4%). The P content declines in the development from calyptopes to mature adults (0.7%). The total food requirement of E. superba during its life in the Southern Ocean is estimated by combining the metabolic data with the growth scheme proposed by Mauchline (1980) (M-scheme). With the M-scheme, E. superba having annual growth periods of 180, 150, and 120 days require 2,259 mg C, 2,102 mg C, and 2,848 mg C, respectively. This M-scheme assumes continued feeding during the Antarctic winter, with little growth and no moulting. An alternative scheme is proposed with regular moulting occurring over winter (despite the complete cessation of feeding) leading to a gradual shrinkage of body size (MS-scheme). In this scheme, the food requirements of E. superba with annual growth periods of 180, 150, and 120 days are reduced to 1,554 mg C, 1,532 mg C, and 1,703 mg C, respectively. The overall gross growth efficiency is 9–12% in the M-scheme and 15-17% in the MS-scheme.

Foodgrain Sufficiency Patterns in India

T HE critical food problem in India arises primarily from a deficiency in the production of foodgrains, mainly rice, wheat, and millets, which contribute 70 to 90 percent of the total food requirements of the people.' Approximately seven out of ten persons are engaged in agriculture,2 and eight out of ten acres of cultivated land are used to produce foodgrains.3 Yet, despite the allocation of most of the country's resources to meet this need, the normal cereal requirement remains unsatisfied.4 Year after year a large part of the scarce foreign exchange, essential to buy producer goods from abroad, has been spent on importing foodgrains. The continued foodgrain deficiency in India results in approximately 80 percent of the population being undernourished.5 As early as 1944, Aykroyd estimated that even during normal crop years about 30 percent of the people lived on the verge of starvation.6 Since then the population has passed 500 million, rising by ten to twelve million each year, and the production of foodgrains, despite an occasional surplus year, has tended to lag, with the result that the food problem in India is critical and threatens catastrophy. The overall deficiency in foodgrains is a national problem, and in view of the unique

A Model for the Global Variation of Clutch Size in Birds

That the clutch size in nidicolous species is adapted to the largest number of young for which the parents can provide enough food, is known as Lack's theory (Lack 1954). It follows that the number of chicks that the parents can effectively rear must be dependent on the food requirement of each chick. This point has been neglected both by those who support Lack's theory and by those against it, perhaps because it has been assumed that the energy requirement by nestlings is more or less independent of the area, the season, or the brood size itself. Hence, some authors, e.g. von Haartman (1954) and Skutch (1967), thought that the fact that there was no appreciable reduction in clutch size in those species in which a single parent tends the young, as compared with those in which both parents share the task, was contradictory to Lack's theory. My observations (Royama 1966 a) showed that the food requirements per chick in broods of great tits Parus major L. under natural conditions, and those of blue tits P. caeruleus L. under laboratory conditions, varied inversely with the number of chicks in the nest, and this was considered to be due to greater heat loss by the chicks in small broods than in large ones. The inverse relationship is such that there would be no appreciable reduction in the total food requirement by the brood when its size is halved, and thus natural selection would not favour those individuals which lay distinctly reduced clutches when they have to feed the young single-handed.

FACTORS GOVERNING FEEDING RATE, FOOD REQUIREMENT AND BROOD SIZE OF NESTLING GREAT TITS PARUS MAJOR

SUMMARYObservations were made on feeding rates and food‐consumption of nestling Great Tits Parus major mainly in Larch plantations at lake Yamanaka, Japan.Feeding frequencies were recorded by an automatic recorder. There were marked differences between early and late broods; the feeding frequencies were twice as great in early than in late broods of the same size. No clear tendency was observed in the variations of feeding frequencies in relation to brood size. There was, however, a clear inverse relationship between the frequencies and the average size of food brought to the nests. The males' share in terms of feeding frequencies is described. These figures, however, did not follow the males' contribution in terms of weight of food, which was nearly always higher than the females'. It is pointed out that feeding frequencies are far too variable to be used as a true index of food consumption by nestlings, and are not reliable.Attempts were made to measure the weight of food; the method is described. The average weight of food brought by males was lighter in early than in later broods. The total weight of food was estimated. The trend of daily food consumption per chick was similar to that of the chick's growth curve. It was found that up to about the tenth day of the nestling period daily food‐intake per chick increased linearly as body weight increased.At some nests, rate of defaecation was observed. This was at first low, but it increased steeply on the third day, with a steady increase thereafter.By comparing the rates of food intake, faeces output, and weight increment of a chick, it was found that only 20–30% of digested matter (the difference between food‐intake and faeces‐output was used up daily (for body temperature regulation various external effort, etc.). The factors responsible for this high efficiency of growth in nestlings are discussed.There was a clear inverse relationship between the total weight of food brought per chick per day and the brood size. This is largely because the heat‐loss is greater in small than in large broods, so that a chick from a small brood in fact needs more energy to maintain its body temperature after a certain age than one from a large brood. This is discussed in detail.Factors which caused variations in size of food are discussed in relation to feeding frequencies.It is pointed out that, because of the inverse relationship between energy requirement by each chick and brood size, the total food requirement by a brood as a whole did not vary directly in proportion to the brood size. An estimation showed that a b/3 still required about 75% of the total food required by a b/8. A smaller brood is less advantageous than expected to parents feeding nestlings when they encounter adverse conditions, e.g. food shortage in the habitat, or a lack of help by their mates, etc. On the other hand, it is suggested that once they have left the nest, the food‐demand by a brood of fledglings the parents have to feed, so that, in the fledging period, in times of food shortage it would certainly be advantageous to have fewer young. It is suggested that, although fledglings may consume three to four times as much food as nestlings, the parents, in providing this food, would not work proportionately harder, since the parents' efficiency of providing food could be higher in feeding the fledglings, which always follow the parents as they are hunting, than in feeding the nestlings to which food has to be brought.On this basis, the adaptive significance of the length of the nestling period in nidicolous species is discussed in relation to clutch size, brood size and food requirement.

Trends in the per Capita Consumption of Foods in the United States since 1920

Nothing concerns the health of a people more fundamentally than an adequate, well-balanced food supply, which we in the United States have, thanks to the world's most scientific and efficient agriculture. But the rest of the world, by and large, is not so fortunate. An inadequate volume of low quality, starchy foods is the lot of the great mass of mankind today. Before World War II, 17 per cent of the average annual diet in Europe was represented by the expensive highly nutritious meat, eggs, and milk; in Asia, 3 per cent; and in the United States, 25 per cent' plus a more favorable ratio of the vitamin foods, fruits and vegetables. Since about seven pounds2 of feed are required to produce a pound, compositely, of meat, eggs, and milk, the proportion of total food requirements represented by these products stands as security against starvation. Only a small part of the feed thus required would be satisfactory for human food under very serious conditions but even so the margin is considerable in the United States. In Europe the margin represented by these livestock products was to a great extent eliminated by the war, so that Europe is now apparently lacking a safety margin in available food, which Asia has been without for a very long time. When population pressure eliminates the livestock margin in a country's food, survival for those in the lower income ranges becomes most precarious, being greatly dependent upon the vagaries of weather in providing relative plenty or scarcity of the means of subsistence. Trends in food consumption have implications for production adjustments by farms and by regions and therefore concern agricultural policy formulation and programs. In this paper changes in food consumption in the United States will be studied during two periods, currently and over the 25-year period since 1920; and the major tendencies thus isolated will be examined from the standpoint of their relationship to occupational, income, and nutritional trends and shifts in the supply price of competitive products. Statistics3 of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics indicate that the per capita food consumption4 has been fairly constant in the United States since 1909 at around 5 pounds daily. From 1909 to 1939, per capita consumption rose only slightly, and showed very little variation from year to year. In no year did

British Food Journal Volume 39 Issue 4 1937

It may be said that the great mass of the food taken by an individual is required and used to satisfy the demands of the body for a source of energy in order that the normal functions and activities of life may be carried out. This energy value of the food was looked upon, until within comparatively recent years, as the important consideration in dietetics. With the accumulation of knowledge regarding the necessity of supplying food essentials, apart altogether from their energy value, this attitude has changed, and it is now known that not only is a certain total quantity of food essential, but that an adequate quantity of the various food essentials must also be supplied. The quantitative problem of dietetics, therefore, resolves itself into a consideration of two aspects which may be considered separately—(1) the total food requirements of the body for energy purposes; and (2) the requirements of the body for the individual food essentials—protein, carbohydrates, fats, mineral salts, vitamins, and water.

THE INFLUENCE OF GROWTH ON THE BASAL METABOLISM OF CHILDREN

The total metabolism of the growing child is universally admitted to be proportionately higher than that of the adult, and Benedict and Talbot 1 have shown that the basal metabolism is also considerably raised during the growth period. From their numerous observations it has been possible for them to provide us with figures showing the expected basal metabolism for any age. Although the basal metabolism for any age is fairly constant, it is probable that the difference between the basal and total metabolism varies considerably in different persons. This variation is probably due to differences of temperament and environment. The active, highly strung boy has a higher metabolism than the lethargic boy. In considering the total food requirements two other factors have to be included. These are: (1) the energy lost in the excreta (feces and urine). In neither of these excreta has complete combustion taken place, and they contain