Total Fixation Duration Research Articles

Fixation patterns in pairs of facial expressions-preferences of self-critical individuals.

So far, studies have revealed some differences in how long self-critical individuals fixate on specific facial expressions and difficulties in recognising these expressions. However, the research has also indicated a need to distinguish between the different forms of self-criticism (inadequate or hated self), the key underlying factor in psychopathology. Therefore, the aim of the current research was to explore fixation patterns for all seven primary emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, contempt, anger, and surprise) and the neutral face expression in relation to level of self-criticism by presenting random facial stimuli in the right or left visual field. Based on the previous studies, two groups were defined, and the pattern of fixations and eye movements were compared (high and low inadequate and hated self). The research sample consisted of 120 adult participants, 60 women and 60 men. We used the Forms of Self-Criticizing and Self-Reassuring Scale to measure self-criticism. As stimuli for the eye-tracking task, we used facial expressions from the Umeå University Database of Facial Expressions database. Eye movements were recorded using the Tobii X2 eye tracker. Results showed that in highly self-critical participants with inadequate self, time to first fixation and duration of first fixation was shorter. Respondents with higher inadequate self also exhibited a sustained pattern in fixations (total fixation duration; total fixation duration ratio and average fixation duration)-fixation time increased as self-criticism increased, indicating heightened attention to facial expressions. On the other hand, individuals with high hated self showed increased total fixation duration and fixation count for emotions presented in the right visual field but did not differ in initial fixation metrics in comparison with high inadequate self group. These results suggest that the two forms of self-criticism - inadequate self and hated self, may function as distinct mechanisms in relation to emotional processing, with implications for their role as potential transdiagnostic markers of psychopathology based on the fixation eye-tracking metrics.

Eye-Tracking Analysis: Examining the Impact of Fan Culture and Entertainment News on Engagement with Social Justice Information

Celebrity culture and idolatry are prevalent nowadays. The development of online social media facilitates the distribution of entertainment news, fan culture has become increasingly prevalent. On the other hand, the extreme fan culture brought negative impacts to people which affects their psychological and physical status. This also leads to a negative stereotype of fan culture, i.e. addicted to entertainment news and not concern themselves of public affairs. This study aims to investigate the impact of fan culture on individuals’ attention to public affairs. Social justice news refers to news that reports and reveals inequality, injustice and oppression in society. Public attention to social justice news can help promote fairness and justice, social progress and change. This study utilized eye-tracking to collect data to investigate the effect of idolatry on social justice news attention. In the experiment, subjects were randomly divided into two groups; Group A subjects would view images of news web pages containing entertainment news and social justice news, while Group B subjects’ material consisted of social justice news and other types of news. Subjects were asked if they are a fan of any celebrity after the trial. The entire browsing process was recorded by an eye-tracker. The eye-tracking data revealed that, generally, people paid less attention to social justice news than to entertainment news and other unrelated topics. This is evidenced by shorter total fixation duration (TFD), fewer fixation counts (FC), and longer times to first fixation (TFF) for social justice news. Analysis of the two categories of subjects’ gender and whether or not they were stargazers revealed that, contrary to the stereotypes commonly perceived by the general public, fans and females would pay more attention to social justice information, exhibiting more TFD and FC. The present study’s use in this area of research. The public to abandon stereotypes and view fans and females in a fair and rational way. At the same time, the media should increase the exposure and weight of social justice news and direct viewers to pay more attention to social news.

Eye-Tracking Evidence for the SNARC Effect: Unveiling Attentional Stages

The Spatial Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect, which involves the conjunction of spatial and numerical response coding, was initially identified through reaction time experiments involving numerical stimuli. Research has revealed a common tendency among individuals to associate smaller numbers with the left side and larger numbers with the right side. Furthermore, scholars have identified additional dimensions, such as the “up-down” and “near-far” associations, that contribute to the complexity of the SNARC effect. However, the universality of the SNARC effect and the underlying psychological and physiological mechanisms continue to be a topic of debate within the academic community. Various studies have proposed a range of interpretations and understandings of this effect. The present study delves into the cognitive mechanisms of the SNARC effect, employing eye-tracking technology to objectively quantify participants’ responses. Utilizing the parity judgment task, a method frequently employed in SNARC effect research, in conjunction with eye-tracking, participants were instructed to judge the parity of numerical stimuli while directing their gaze to the left or right, and above or below the numbers as per the experimental requirements. Colored blocks were positioned around the numbers to serve as visual anchors, indicating the spatial directions of left/right and top/down. Data analysis revealed that when smaller numbers (1-4) were presented, participants exhibited a tendency to focus on the left color block adjacent to the number, characterized by a higher Total Fixation Duration (TFD) and a shorter Time to First Fixation (TFF). In contrast, when larger numbers (6-9) appeared, participants were more likely to focus on the right color block, indicating the presence of a SNARC effect in the horizontal dimension. However, no significant effect was observed in the vertical dimension. Additionally, this study innovatively employed a blank page in conjunction with a test page to differentiate between the early and late stages of participants’ attentional processing. The examination of TFF and TFD data uncovered a two-stage processing mechanism associated with the SNARC effect. This experimental approach and methodological framework offer novel perspectives that contribute to the advancement of research in this domain.

Towards Automatic Object Detection and Activity Recognition in Indoor Climbing

Rock climbing has propelled from niche sport to mainstream free-time activity and Olympic sport. Moreover, climbing can be studied as an example of a high-stakes perception-action task. However, understanding what constitutes an expert climber is not simple or straightforward. As a dynamic and high-risk activity, climbing requires a precise interplay between cognition, perception, and precise action execution. While prior research has predominantly focused on the movement aspect of climbing (i.e., skeletal posture and individual limb movements), recent studies have also examined the climber’s visual attention and its links to their performance. To associate the climber’s attention with their actions, however, has traditionally required frame-by-frame manual coding of the recorded eye-tracking videos. To overcome this challenge and automatically contextualize the analysis of eye movements in indoor climbing, we present deep learning-driven (YOLOv5) hold detection that facilitates automatic grasp recognition. To demonstrate the framework, we examined the expert climber’s eye movements and egocentric perspective acquired from eye-tracking glasses (SMI and Tobii Glasses 2). Using the framework, we observed that the expert climber’s grasping duration was positively correlated with total fixation duration (r = 0.807) and fixation count (r = 0.864); however, it was negatively correlated with the fixation rate (r = −0.402) and saccade rate (r = −0.344). The findings indicate the moments of cognitive processing and visual search that occurred during decision making and route prospecting. Our work contributes to research on eye–body performance and coordination in high-stakes contexts, and informs the sport science and expands the applications, e.g., in training optimization, injury prevention, and coaching.

Examining gaze behavior in undergraduate students and educators during the evaluation of tooth preparation: an eye-tracking study

BackgroundGaze behavior can serve as an objective tool in undergraduate pre-clinical dental education, helping to identify key areas of interest and common pitfalls in the routine evaluation of tooth preparations. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the gaze behavior of undergraduate dental students and dental educators while evaluating a single crown tooth preparation.MethodsThirty-five participants volunteered to participate in the study and were divided into a novice group (dental students, n = 18) and an expert group (dental educators, n = 17). Each participant wore a binocular eye-tracking device, and the total duration of fixation was evaluated as a metric to study the gaze behavior. Sixty photographs of twenty different tooth preparations in three different views (buccal, lingual, and occlusal) were prepared and displayed during the experimental session. The participants were asked to rate the tooth preparations on a 100 mm visual analog rating scale and were also asked to determine whether each tooth preparation was ready to make an impression. Each view was divided into different areas of interest. Statistical analysis was performed with a three-way analysis of the variance model with repeated measures.ResultsBased on the participants’ mean rates, the “best” and the “worst” tooth preparations were selected for analysis. The results showed a significantly longer time to decision in the novices compared to the experts (P = 0.003) and a significantly longer time to decision for both the groups in the best tooth preparation compared to the worst tooth preparation (P = 0.002). Statistical analysis also showed a significantly longer total duration of fixations in the margin compared to all other conditions for both the buccal (P < 0.012) and lingual (P < 0.001) views.ConclusionsThe current study showed distinct differences in gaze behavior between the novices and the experts during the evaluation of single crown tooth preparation. Understanding differences in gaze behavior between undergraduate dental students and dental educators could help improve tooth preparation skills and provide constructive customized feedback.

Impaired Social Attention and Cognitive Empathy in a Paediatric Sample of Children with Symptoms of Anxiety

Impairments in social cognition, in particular empathy, have been associated with childhood psychopathology, though previous investigations have yielded inconsistent results. Measures of social attention can reveal processes involved in responses to emotional stimuli and highlight deficits in empathy, or emotional biases in those with anxiety. The current study examined symptoms of anxiety, cognitive and affective empathy scores, and eye-gaze patterns in a pediatric sample of children (n = 178; 51–98 months-old) referred by their teachers for emerging psychopathology symptoms at school. We used eye-tracking metrics to capture gaze patterns during a dynamic video task designed to elicit empathic responses. Anxiety symptomology was reported by parents using the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders scale (SCARED). Associations between eye-tracking variables, cognitive and affective empathy, and anxiety scores were analysed dimensionally in accordance with the Research and Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework. Higher levels of anxiety were associated with lower cognitive empathy and shorter first and total fixation durations to the eyes, across emotions (happiness, sadness, fear). No such associations were found between affective empathy and anxiety. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that across emotion conditions, first fixation duration negatively predicted anxiety scores. Our results indicate that children high in anxiety display cognitive empathy impairments and shorter attention to the eyes. These findings could inform early intervention programs for individuals at risk of developing anxiety disorders, as educating those high in anxiety on ways to identify emotions in others through changes in social attention could help to reduce anxiety.

Mild hunger elicits attentional desensitization to visual food cues in healthy, non-obese individuals.

Food is a vital human need, and the human visual system is finely tuned to detect and respond to food cues in the environment. The omnipresence of food cues across various settings has been linked to the prevalence of obesity in susceptible populations. However, the influence of the post-prandial state on visual attention to food stimuli remains poorly understood. This study aimed to elucidate how a 12 hour fast affects visual attention to food and non-food stimuli in healthy, non-obese individuals. Visual attention was assessed by measuring the total duration of visual fixations on stimuli presented on a computer screen, using a screen-based eye tracker (Tobii X2-60). Participants were divided into two groups: those who had fasted for 12 hours and those tested within two hours after consuming breakfast (satiated state). Additionally, performance on the Food Stroop task and electrodermal activity (EDA) responses were measured to evaluate attentional interference and physiological arousal, respectively. Salivary samples were also collected to assess levels of alpha-amylase and cortisol. Fasted participants exhibited a progressive decline in visual attention toward food stimuli compared to satiated individuals, reflecting a satiated state. This effect was independent of the palatability of the depicted food items and was not observed with stimuli representing non-food items. The Food Stroop task revealed no differences between fasting and satiated participants, indicating that the presence of food-related stimuli does not differentially impact attentional interference under varying hunger states. Moreover, no significant variations were observed in EDA responses across participant groups and stimulus types, suggesting that the modulation of visual attention to food cues by hunger is independent of physiological arousal. Interestingly, satiated subjects exhibited higher levels of salivary alpha-amylase, which was inversely related to their subjective hunger ratings. No differences in salivary cortisol levels were found between groups. The findings indicate a novel influence of mild hunger on the processing of visual food cues, independent of physiological arousal. The decline in visual attention to food stimuli in fasted individuals suggests that satiety modulates visual processing. The lack of differences in attentional interference and physiological arousal between fasting and satiated states further supports the notion that visual attention to food cues is primarily driven by hunger-related mechanisms rather than stress. Additionally, the inverse relationship between salivary alpha-amylase levels and hunger ratings implies that alpha-amylase may serve as a marker of satiety rather than stress.

Evaluation of Cognitive Load Differences between Elderly and Young Pedestrians at the Signalised Intersection

The pedestrian cognitive load has an important effect on the pedestrian crossing decision making. Compared with young adults, old people are characterised by declining physical function and slower reaction ability, which makes them prone to traffic accidents when crossing the street. This study aims to compare the visual information-mental load correlation between elderly and young adults waiting at the signalised intersections and evaluate their cognitive load conditions. Therefore, two signalised intersections with different traffic scenes in the Nan’an District, Chongqing, China were selected. The eye-tracking, electrocardiographic and electrodermal activity data of young and old pedestrians were collected using eye-tracking and physiological instruments. The visual indexes (the total duration of fixations, the number of fixations, the average pupil diameter changing rate, the number of saccades, the average peak speed of saccades, the average amplitude of saccades and the total amplitude of saccades) and physiological indicators (the average growth rate of heart rate, the time-domain analysis indicator of HRV and HRV frequency domain analysis indicators, electrodermal response amplitude and rise time of the EDR amp.) were taken as inputs and outputs parameters, respectively. Then, the comprehensive cognitive load evaluation model for pedestrians was constructed when waiting to cross the street based on the data envelopment analysis method. And the cognitive load characteristic differences between the young adults and the elderly were compared. The results show that in the same crossing scene, compared with the young pedestrian, the elder pedestrian exhibited lower overall perceptual efficiency, lower fixation durations and higher cognitive loads. These results can provide certain references on improving the street crossing safety for the elderly pedestrian.

Is game-based therapy effective for treating cognitive deficits in adults with schizophrenia? Evidence from a randomized controlled trial

Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia are a major contributor to poor functional outcomes and everyday functioning, making them a promising therapeutic target. Recent years have witnessed a dramatic increase in the use of digital interventions, such as game-based therapy, targeting various domains of cognition to treat mental disorders. Game-based digital interventions have been suggested to have therapeutic value in health care for people with schizophrenia. To support this idea, a novel, online training program (Komori Life) that targets cognitive deficits in schizophrenia was tested for feasibility of use and initial efficiency. Inpatients with schizophrenia were randomized to complete 20 sessions of either Komori Life (N = 40 completers) or treatment as usual (N = 40 completers). Cognitive and clinical assessments were performed at enrollment and after completion of the training intervention for all patients. In addition, 32 healthy volunteers were recruited as controls, and an eye-tracking paradigm was employed to assess attentional biases to emotional information before and after game intervention for all subjects. The results showed that there were no group differences in cognitive or clinical assessments at baseline between the two patient groups. After game training, there were still no group × time interactions on cognitive or clinical assessment scores. Regarding eye movement measurements, both patient groups showed increased attention to threatening stimuli compared to healthy controls in terms of attentional maintenance at baseline. After game training, the game training group revealed greater improvement in attentional bias towards threatening scenes (decreased percentage of total duration and percentage of total fixations towards threatening stimuli) relative to the treatment as usual group. Moreover, our results partially indicated that training effectiveness was associated with cognitive improvement and that heightened attentional maintenance to threats was associated with worse cognitive performance. This study provides initial evidence that a remote, online cognitive training program is feasible and effective in improving cognitive function in schizophrenia. This form of training may serve as a complementary therapy to existing psychiatric care. Clinical trial registration: the trial is registered at http://www.chictr.org.cn, identifier ChiCTR2100048403.

Attentional Bias in Older Adults with Non-Clinical Depression: An Eye-Tracking Study

ABSTRACT Background Cognitive models of depression assert that attentional biases play an important role in the maintenance of depression. However, few studies have explored attentional bias in depressed older adults, and no consistent conclusions have been reached. Methods In the current study, we investigated attentional bias in older adults with non-clinical depression. Older adults aged over 60 with non-clinical depression and without depression were instructed to perform a free viewing task while their eye movements were tracked. Results The results showed that, compared to older adults without depression, non-clinically depressed older adults had longer total fixation durations and a greater number of fixations on sad stimuli. Moreover, non-depressed older adults exhibited a preference for pleasant images, whereas this effect was not observed in older adults with non-clinical depression. Conclusion This study suggested that non-clinically depressed older adults have attentional bias, which is manifested as increased attention to sad stimuli and decreased attention to pleasant stimuli.The current study has functional and potential functional implications.

In the Eye of the Beholder-Visual Search Behavior in Equestrian Dressage Judges.

This study investigated the visual search behavior of equestrian dressage judges at different expertise levels during the assessment of Grand Prix horse-rider combinations. Twenty judges (11 foundational level, 9 advanced level) participated in the study, with their eye movements recorded using Tobii Fusion Eyetracker as they evaluated video recordings of dressage tests. Fixation metrics, namely Total Duration of Fixation (TDF), Average Duration of Fixation (ADF), and Total Number of Fixations (TNF), were analyzed across four Areas of Interest (AOIs): front, back, rider, and horse's feet. Statistical analysis utilized linear mixed-effects models. Results demonstrated that judges consistently focused more on the front of the horse, with additional differences in fixation duration and frequency based on judge experience and specific movements. Advanced judges focused more on the horses' feet, suggesting they draw meaning from specific areas indicative of performance quality. Conversely, foundational level judges focused more on the rider, reflecting different evaluative priorities at lower levels of the sport. These findings suggest that judges focus on a limited number of highly relevant areas, differing across movements and expertise levels. The study underscores the necessity of understanding both gaze behavior and subsequent interpretations of visual information to increase judging transparency, fairness, and equine welfare.

Relationship between Visual Attention Patterns and Subjective Evaluations in Housing Sales Information: A Study Using Eye-Tracking Technology

Traditionally, studies analyzing consumer preferences in real estate have focused on measuring subjective user responses, neglecting associated physiological responses. This study investigates the relationship between visual attention patterns and subjective evaluations of home sales information. Eye-tracking technology was used to record two characteristics of 21 participants’ visual behavior while viewing stimuli containing information about home sales (First Fixation Time and Total Fixation Duration). Additionally, participants evaluated their level of satisfaction with nine dwelling characteristics based on a questionnaire adapted for this research (1, quality and finishes of the dwelling; 2, size of the dwelling; 3, dwelling floor level; 4, bright and outdoor orientation of the dwelling; 5, flexible layout; 6, peaceful atmosphere; 7, smart and secure character; 8, privacy; and 9, original and luxurious character). The results demonstrated significant correlations between fixation time on specific areas of the stimulus and subjective ratings of features such as size, quality, finishes, layout, and orientation of the homes. Furthermore, differences based on gender and participants’ architecture experience level were observed in visual behavior during image observation. These findings underscore the importance of visual design and presentation in home marketing, as visual attention can influence perceptions of home characteristics and, ultimately, purchase decisions.

Exploring product style perception: A comparative eye-tracking analysis of users across varying levels of self-monitoring

Digital shopping applications and platforms offer consumers a numerous array of products with diverse styles and style attributes. Existing literature suggests that style preferences are determined by consumers’ genders, ages, education levels, and nationalities. In this study, we argue the feasibility and necessity of self-monitoring as an additional consumer variable impacting product style perception and preference through the utilization of eye-tracking technology. Three eye-movement experiments were conducted on forty-two participants (twenty males and twenty-two females; Age: M = 22.8, SD = 1.63). The results showed participants with higher levels of self-monitoring exhibited shorter total fixation durations and fewer fixation counts while examining images of watch product styles. In addition, gender exerted an interaction effect on self-monitoring’s impact, with female participants of high self-monitoring ability able to perceive differences in product styles more rapidly and with greater sensitivity. Overall, the results highlight the utility of self-monitoring as a research variable in product style perception investigations, as well as its implication for style intelligence classifiers, and style neuroimaging.

Less Is More: Higher-Skilled Sim Racers Allocate Significantly Less Attention to the Track Relative to the Display Features than Lower-Skilled Sim Racers.

Simulated (sim) racing is an emerging esport that has garnered much interest in recent years and has been a relatively under-researched field in terms of expertise and performance. When examining expertise, visual attention has been of particular interest to researchers, with eye tracking technology commonly used to assess visual attention. In this study, we examined the overt visual attention allocation of high- and low-skilled sim racers during a time trial task using Tobii 3 glasses. In the study, 104 participants were tested on one occasion, with 88 included in the analysis after exclusions. Participants were allocated to either group according to their fastest lap times. Independent t-tests were carried out with sidak corrections to test our hypotheses. Our results indicate that when eye tracking metrics were normalised to the lap time and corner sector time, there was a difference in the relative length of overt attention allocation (fixation behaviour) as lower-skilled racers had significantly greater total fixation durations in laps overall and across corner sectors when normalised (p = 0.013; p = 0.018). Interestingly, high- and low-skilled sim racers differed in where they allocated their attention during the task, with high-skilled sim racers allocating significantly less overt attention to the track relative to other areas of the display (p = 0.003). This would allow for higher-skilled racers to obtain relatively more information from heads-up display elements in-game, all whilst driving at faster speeds. This study provides evidence that high-skilled sim racers appear to need significantly less overt attention throughout a fast lap, and that high- and low-skilled sim racers differ in where they allocate their attention while racing.

The Influence of In-Store Recycling Signage on Consumer Behavior: A Study of Visual Attention and Usage of Store Drop-Off Bins

This study examined the impact of using three types of in-store signage to educate consumers about packaging recyclability as well as to measure its effectiveness in increasing awareness of a store drop-off recycling method for packaged granola. A total of 67 shoppers were recruited and divided into two groups to shop for granola in a retail store. Group A was not exposed to signage near the granola, while Group B was exposed to the in-store signage comprising shelf strips and aisle invaders with How2Recycle educational information containing messaging about the store drop-off recycling. A store drop-off bin was positioned at the entrance of the testing environment for both groups. The results showed that Group B had a significantly higher total fixation duration (p = 0.02) and fixation count (p = 0.03) than Group A in response to the recycling instructions on the drop-off bin. When comparing the three methods of in-store signage—shelf strips, aisle invaders, and the printed store drop-off bin panels—the shelf strips performed the best with regard to total fixation duration (1.72 s) and fixation count (5.91 counts) and were noticed by the highest percentage of shoppers. The store drop-off bin panels had the best performance with regard to time to first fixation (0.12 s). The aisle invaders had the lowest performance in all three eye tracking key metrics and were noticed by the lowest percentage of participants. These responses illustrate shopper challenges related to plastic recycling. This study demonstrates that recycling information can be effectively provided through strategically positioned in-store signage, especially messaging on shelf strips. While consumers are open to the usage of Store Drop-off Bins, affirming customer knowledge of these processes is essential to develop new consumer recycling habits.

Visual behavior characteristics of historical landscapes based on eye-tracking technology

ABSTRACT The subjective encounter with architecture encompasses the particular presentation of architectural elements or the overall structure to individuals, taking into account their perception, cognition, and thought processes. The purpose of this research is to investigate the intricate relationship between visual attention directed towards historical architecture and the subjective experiences engendered during the process of observation. Utilizing eye-tracking technology within the realm of virtual reality, this study delves into the observation patterns exhibited by individuals when confronted with historical architecture, specifically focusing on the traditional courtyard residences found in Beijing’s hutongs. The panoramic images, meticulously modeled and rendered, are divided into six distinct areas of interest: base, ground, window&doors, walls, roof, and eaves. The eye-tracking data of 81 participants, who engaged with 10 virtual scenes through the employment of VR headsets, along with their responses to architectural style questionnaires, were systematically gathered. Through comprehensive analysis, encompassing the examination of total fixation duration (TFD), fixation count (FC), first fixation duration (FFD), and time to first fixation (TFF) across the areas of interest (AOIs), in addition to deviations in scores among different architectural areas and styles, notable insights emerged. Results indicate that both professionals and non-professionals allocate heightened attention, as evidenced by TFD, FC, TFF, and FFD, to elements that exhibit greater score deviations in the questionnaires as opposed to those with smaller discrepancies. Moreover, the TFD and FC metrics pertaining to the Windows&doors AOI collectively constitute 40.20% and 40.71%, respectively. Undoubtedly, these figures signify the preeminent focal points within all AOIs. This underscores the pivotal role played by doors and windows in shaping individuals’ judgments pertaining to historical architectural styles. This research provides designers with valuable understanding of the cognitive patterns exhibited by individuals in engaging with aspects of history, which enable them to identify and preserve key elements associated with historical styles. Additionally, it establishes a fundamental cornerstone for future quantitative research endeavors centered around the preservation of historical architectural styles.

How to Arrange Texts and Pictures for Online Visitors — Comparing Basic Ceramic Display Forms with Eye Tracking

In the context of online text–picture relic exhibitions, two exploratory experiments were conducted to investigate the role of integrated/separate display, background information, and annotation type in learning tangible heritage. Using ceramics as an example, we tracked the eye movement of subjects under different display forms and tested whether they obtained the relevant information. Experiment 1 (N = 48) adopted a 2 (integrated/separate display) × 2 (with/without background information) design and Experiment 2 (N = 93) investigated distinct types of annotation (no annotation, indicative/direct/picture/contour shape annotation). We found that the following. (1) In the segmented relic display, the usage time, fixation count, and total fixation duration of relic names were lower than those in the integrated case. The probability that subjects would learn comparatively was also lower in the separate display. However, the performance on retention or transfer tests did not differ depending on the integrated/separate display. After reading the background information, subjects paid less attention to relic names but had better knowledge transfer performance. (2) The viewers’ attention allocation to the materials was not significantly influenced by the annotations. Mere visual annotations did not provide an advantage for information acquisition. By contrast, indicative verbal annotation required relatively more time for better target information memory, and the direct verbal cue consumed the least time. Based on the results, we discussed the application scenario of multimedia learning principles and potential recommendations for designing online relic displays.

Correlation research on visual behavior and cognition of impression against localized church facades in China

Churches in China are material witnesses of cultural dissemination, and their architectural forms are in the process of localization. In order to determine the optimal degree of localization of church facades as well as to study the correlation between visual behavior and subjective cognition, five church facades with different degrees of localization were selected in present study, and the questionnaire survey as well as eye-tracking technology were used to collect data from two aspects: subjective cognition (the impression and acceptance levels) and objective eye movement (the first fixation duration, total fixation duration, fixation count, and visit count). The results showed the differences in public perceptions of church facades, and the impression of participants was continuously enhanced with the increasing of localization degree of church facade, while the acceptance level showed a U-shaped change. What's more, the correlation between the impression level and the first fixation duration was found to be 0.910, the Pearson coefficient between the acceptance level and the total fixation duration was found to be 0.928, indicating that eye-tracking indicators could accurately reflect the subjective cognition of the public. Performed analyses demonstrated that eye-tracking technology would provides an important technical mean for the design, conservation, and renewal of building facades.

Are virtual backgrounds during online learning distracting? An attention study using eye tracker technology

During and after the Covid-19 pandemic, online learning has gained popularity. Video conferencing, such as Zoom, has become the new normal in almost every individual’s life. The purpose of this study is to observe the usage and preference of Virtual Background (VB) during video conferencing through a survey, whereas the effect of VB on attention during online meetings is evaluated through an eye tracker experiment. An online survey is conducted to observe the usage and preference of Indonesian users of Zoom in applied VB. Based on the most preferred VB, an eye tracker experiment was conducted to evaluate participants’ attention during online learning using the three most preferred VB: office VB, plain background, and thematic VB. Eye tracker parameters, including Percentage of Participants who Fixated (PFF), Total Fixation Duration (TFD), Time to First Fixation (TFF), and Fixation Count (FC), were measured. The survey result showed that 71% of 303 respondents preferred their lecturers to use VB during Zoom meetings, 26% preferred office VB, 25% preferred plain VB, and 20% preferred thematic VB. An experiment that is conducted to evaluate attention during online meetings with three different VBs using an eye tracker shows that attention to lecture in plain VB is the best compared to other VBs, shown by the highest value of TFF and lowest TFD and FC. Implications of the result are discussed.

The attentional guidance and facilitating effects of group behavioral cues on individual college pedestrians’ jaywalking decisions

Objective Jaywalking is an important cause of pedestrian-related automobile accidents. Exploring the factors that influence jaywalking behavior and suggesting appropriate improvement measures are critical for reducing automobile accidents involving pedestrians. Methods This study divided traffic situations into high-risk and low-risk situations. Each situation contained three visual attention cues: vehicle, traffic light, and group behavior. Based on this, the role of visual cues in guiding pedestrians’ attention and influencing their decisions during jaywalking was examined. Sixty participants, with an average age of 19, were recruited. They were shown 84 crosswalk videos randomly while their crossing decisions and eye movement data were recorded. Results In low-risk situations, pedestrians spent more attention on group behavioral cues when making jaywalking decisions. The rate of jaywalking increased with the number of other jaywalking pedestrians. In high-risk situations, the pedestrians’ total fixation duration at vehicle hazard cues was longer when making jaywalking decisions, and the jaywalking rate decreased. Conclusions The results indicate that pedestrians’ jaywalking decisions were based on other pedestrians’ illegal crossing cues and automatic associative processes in low-risk situations. The higher the number of people crossing the street, the higher the number of pedestrians illegally crossing the road. In high-risk situations, pedestrians paid more attention to vehicle hazard cues before making jaywalking decisions, and fewer illegal crossings. The jaywalking decisions were based on a risk assessment, a controlled analytical process. The results verify the effect of visual cues on pedestrians’ attentional guidance and decision-making in different traffic situations, as well as the effectiveness of visual attention in predicting decision intention. The findings provide a theoretical basis and data reference for pedestrian safety education and constructing an intelligent driving pedestrian trajectory prediction model.